Sexual violence, masculinity, and the journey of recovery.

Abstract

Sexual violence has been recognized as one of the most frequent forms of lived trauma worldwide (World Health Organization, 2013). Given their predominance as survivors, women have been the almost exclusive focus of research and support in this area to date. However, the growing number of studies exploring the sexual abuse, sexual assault and rape of boys and men has broadened the discourse around sexual violence and gender identity. Although the profound consequences are common to survivors regardless of gender, it is evident that particular aspects are connected to the manner in which the trauma is processed and expressed. There is a dearth of evidence on the experiences of men who seek professional help, such as counseling, nonetheless. Given the increasing number of male survivors accessing Irish Rape Crisis Centres (RCCs; Rape Crisis Network Ireland, 2015), the need for counselors to have knowledge of gender relevant interventions is of vital importance. In this article, we explore how norms of masculinity influence the recovery process in the context of RCC counseling in the Republic of Ireland. The findings enhance our understanding of the gendered nature of healing and have important implications for practice.

Male and LGBT survivors of sexual violence in conflict situations: a realist review of health interventions in low-and middle-income countries

“…Men and LGBT individuals will rightly perceive that it is not safe to tell if the results of reporting sexual abuse are legal procedures against them or further abuse. Men and boys may also not feel that it is safe to tell providers who they perceive have negative attitudes about male survivors of sexual violence [28]. Additionally, gender norms may influence preferences for samesex providers, and they may prefer disclosing to another male instead of a female [89], as focus group discussions with male refugee survivors have suggested [16].…”

“…In relation to the third mechanism proposed by Spangaro et al [34] "we can work together to address this problem", gender may also be at the core of behaviour motivations in help-seeking. Principles of psychological treatment -such as, introspection, emotional expressivity and acknowledgement of difficulties -are often in conflict with hegemonic masculinities [28,95]. Conversely, male coping strategies often include denial of "weakness" and "closing-up" [28,96], probably linked to norms condoning self-reliance and emotional control [97].…”

“…Principles of psychological treatment -such as, introspection, emotional expressivity and acknowledgement of difficulties -are often in conflict with hegemonic masculinities [28,95]. Conversely, male coping strategies often include denial of "weakness" and "closing-up" [28,96], probably linked to norms condoning self-reliance and emotional control [97]. Research suggests that women are more tolerant of the stigma associated with seeking professional help, more likely than men to recognise their personal need for help, and more open to sharing their problems with other people [98].…”

“…Additionally, they seem more likely to engage in externalising behaviour, including aggression, risky sexual behaviour and suicidal behaviour. Substance abuse is also a common coping mechanism among male trauma survivors [28]. These inadequate coping mechanisms can possibly create a feedback loop between trauma experience, externalising behaviour and further trauma (e.g.…”

“…Alcohol and drug abuse are also reportedly common among survivors [2,3,5,18,25,26]. Additionally, male survivors of sexual violence may be particularly concerned about threats to their perceived notions of masculinity, self-doubt about their sexual orientation, fear of rejection, and concerns about not being able to prevent the abuse, and about re-victimisation [27,28]. Access to care for male victims can also be challenging, as they are less often identified by health providers as being in need of protection and psychosocial assistance than female survivors [9].…”