Sibling resemblances in nonverbal skill and style

Personal space: Where we now stand.

“…Here I will mention the theoretical and practical implications of the flexibility of personal space; the coordination of the substantial individual differences in personal space during the formation of dyads, triads, and larger complexes; the investigation of personal space within and toward specific social groupings (e.g., police, teachers, bosses, families, siblings and spouses; c.f. Blanck, Zuckerman, dePaulo, & Rosenthal, 1980;Brody & Stoneman, 1981); the development of a methodology for separating boundary movements, shape changes, and discomfort gradient changes as competing explanations for changes in comfortable interaction distances; the extent to which personal space can be changed by behavior modification or other strategies (c.f. Collett, 1971;Hayduk, 198 la;Under, 1974); the contextual effects of previous observations of atypical distances (c.f.…”

Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories and research

“…The influence of sibhng interactions on the sociahzation of emotions has not been studied extensively, but the importance of these interactions is suggested by a study indicating that same sex sibling pairs are more similar in nonverbal decoding abilities than opposite sex sibling pairs (Blanck, Zuckerman, DePaulo, & Rosenthal, 1980) The effect of teacher-student interaction on emotional development may also be quite dramatic, as suggested by studies on learned helplessness in classroom interactions (Dweck, Davidson, Nelson, & Enna, 1978, Dweck, Goetz, & Strauss, 1980 Although not directly related to the socialization of emotion, the findings that teachers praise girls more for intellectually irrelevant aspects of their behavior (Dweck et al, 1978(Dweck et al, , 1980, and reprimand them less frequently than boys (Serbin, O'Leary, Kent, & Tonick, 1973), suggests that it would be worthwhile to explore whether or not teachers also reinforce the expression of different emotions by males and females Peers and television programs may also be powerful socialization agents in emotional development Lever (1976) finds that peer group quarrels do not disrupt boys' games but do disrupt girls' games, and she suggests that girls' preference to play in small intimate groups is a training ground for sociocultural skills Birnbaum and Croll (1984) rated the frequency of anger, happiness, fear, and sadness displayed by characters on children's television shows and report that male characters display significantly more anger than female characters Although the research on teacher and peer socialization processes IS not directly related to the development of affect, it suggests that the two sexes have different socialization experiences which may lead to differences m affect experience, expression, and recognition For example, if boys receive loud reprimands more frequently from teachers than do girls (Serbin et al , 1973), they may learn either to attend to or to model angry or aggressive behaviors more than girls do More research is clearly needed in this area to understand the effects of peer, teacher, sibhng, and parental socialization practices on the emotional development of each sex Block (1976) also notes that socialization practices vary as a function of the child's developmental stage, parental role concepts, and social-cultural pressures, all of which change over time Research does not yet reflect the changing qualities of emotional socialization practices over time…”