Smoking, physiological arousal, and emotional response.

Effects of smoking on thermal pain threshold in deprived and minimally-deprived habitual smokers

“…Several studies found no effects of smoking or nicotine intake on pain threshold or pain tolerance (Waller et al 1983;Sult and Moss 1986;Knott 1990). Other results indicate that (a) deprived smokers exhibit lower pain threshold levels than nonsmokers or minimally-deprived smokers (Nesbitt 1973;Silverstein 1982) and that (b) smoking a nicotinecontaining cigarette leads to a pain threshold increase in smokers (Nesbitt 1973;Silverstein 1982;Pomerleau et al 1984;Fertig et al 1986). …”

REVIEW Nesbitt's Paradox resolved? Stress and arousal modulation during cigarette smoking

“…The issue of whether nicotine can sometim es generate true stimulation is addressed again later. Nesbitt (1973) noted that one of the m ost frequently given reasons for smoking was stressreduction, with 80% of smokers using cigarettes when feeling stressed or angry (Ikard et al, 1969). Schachter (1978, p. 209) noted: ª Smokers widely report that they smoke more when they are tense or anxious and they also report that smoking calm s themº .…”

“…A core question will be whether nicotine generates any real psychobiological bene® ts, in addition to the reversal of abstinence effects (West, 1993). Secondly, Nesbitt (1973) suggested that arousal is generally accompanied by stress, and tiredness with relaxation. However, it will be shown instead that they are basically orthogonal and independent.…”

“…C igarette sm oking an d arousal Schachter (1973) listed several lines of evidence to indicate the arousing effects of smoking: heightened cardiovascular activity, increased epinephrine (adrenaline) excretion, EEG indices of heightened arousal, and anim al data showing that nicotine had C NS stim ulant properties (Nesbitt, 1973;Schachter, 1973). These changes have been widely replicated, and it is generally acknowledged that smoking is often arousing (Church, 1989;Gilbert, 1995).…”

“…Stress and arousal are broad constructs, covering a diverse array of phenomena. This paper will follow the de® nitions from the original articles (Nesbitt, 1973;Schachter, 1973), and largely maintained since (Church, 1989;Gilbert, 1995). Arousal is an energetic construct, re¯ecting feelings of alertness, and standard EEG characteristics (Church, 1989).…”