Snow Stratigraphy and Water Equivalence Measured With an Active Microwave System

Ellerbruch, D.A.; Boyne, H. S.

doi:10.1017/s0022143000010765

Cited by 41 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 3 publications

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“…Movement of the radar system enables a measurement of SWE to be made over a large area [ Marshall et al , ]. The FMCW radar can also be set up to measure snowpack stratigraphy at a point location [ Ellerbruch and Boyne , ]. FMCW radars have been mounted on a sled towed behind a snow machine to measure snowpack stratigraphy along a transect [ Gubler and Hiller , ; Holmgren et al , ; Pomeroy and Gray , ].…”

Section: Instrumentation and Techniquesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Measurement of the physical properties of the snowpack

Kinar

Pomeroy

2015

Reviews of Geophysics

196

202

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This paper reviews measurement techniques and corresponding devices used to determine the physical properties of the seasonal snowpack from distances close to the ground surface. The review is placed in the context of the need for scientific observations of snowpack variables that provide inputs for predictive hydrological models that help to advance scientific understanding of geophysical processes related to snow in the near-surface cryosphere. Many of these devices used to measure snow are invasive and require the snowpack to be disrupted, thereby precluding the possibility for multiple measurements to be made at the same sampling location. Moreover, many devices rely on the use of empirical calibration equations that may not be valid at all geographic locations. The spatial density of observations with most snow measurement devices is often inadequate. There is a need for improved automation of snowpack measurement instrumentation with an emphasis on field-based feedback of measurement validity in lieu of postprocessing of samples or data at a lab or office location. The scientific future of snow measurement instrumentation thereby requires a synthesis between science and engineering principles that takes into consideration geophysics and the physics of device operation.

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Section: Instrumentation and Techniquesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Measurement of the physical properties of the snowpack

Kinar

Pomeroy

2015

Reviews of Geophysics

196

202

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“…The third method, described by Ellerbruch and Boyne (1980) and Gubler and Hiller (1984), uses the opposite technique, where snow depth d s is measured and mean density is calculated from T 2w . Since the two-way travel time T 2w is much more sensitive to snow depth d s than mean density this technique is more prone to errors, but measuring d s is much faster and can be done at a higher spatial density.…”

Section: Theorymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Ellerbruch and Boyne (1980) first published frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar results for alpine snow. They identified ground and surface reflections, estimated SWE at many sites to ±5%, observed a strong reflection from a depth-hoar layer, and measured changes in the surface reflection during a day when the surface snow experienced some melting.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Estimating alpine snowpack properties using FMCW radar

2005

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Large variations in both snow water equivalent (SWE) and snow slope stability are known to exist in the alpine snowpack, caused by wind, topographic and microclimatic effects. This variability makes extrapolation of point measurements of snowpack properties difficult and prone to error, but these types of measurements are used to estimate SWE and stability across entire mountain ranges. Radar technology provides a promising alternative to point measurements, because large areas can be covered quickly and non-intrusively. There is great potential for obtaining information on a large spatial scale from airborne applications. Frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar measurements were made from the ground in several different alpine snowpacks, along with manual and in situ electrical measurements. The surface and ground reflections from the radar data, combined with an average density estimate, can provide a useful estimate of SWE. In addition, the locations of internal reflections are highly correlated with both visually identified layers and measured changes in in situ dielectric properties.

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“…It was stated that the variation in density affects the radar return; the peaks in the reflected signal corresponded to high density gradients and were not necessarily indicative of a high absolute value of density. The relationship between the electromagnetic scattering properties and physical properties of a snow pack using an FM-CW radar operating in the frequency range of 8-12 GHz with a range resolution of approximately 3 cm was studied in [23]. The data provided show an evident correlation between the density gradient and the backscatter, and weak correlation between the return amplitude and the density itself.…”

Section: Field Radar Data Versus Snow Density Characteristicsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effect of Snow Density Irregularities on Radar Backscatter From a Layered Dry Snow Pack

Yurchak¹

2014

PIER B

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The contribution of electromagnetic wave scattering on density irregularities in the volume component of radar backscatter was analyzed for a thick snow pack containing internal hoar/ice layers. To evaluate the effect of this scattering, Density Deviation Factor (DDF), a statistical parameter, was introduced into the backscattering coefficient using the "slice" approach. DDF is proportional to the intensity of the density fluctuation and inverse to the mean density. The inverse dependence of backscatter with accumulation rate was discussed based on the DDF parameterization of snow inhomogeneities.

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Snow Stratigraphy and Water Equivalence Measured With an Active Microwave System

Cited by 41 publications

References 3 publications

Measurement of the physical properties of the snowpack

Measurement of the physical properties of the snowpack

Estimating alpine snowpack properties using FMCW radar

Effect of Snow Density Irregularities on Radar Backscatter From a Layered Dry Snow Pack

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