Strategic mineral resources: Availability and future estimations for the renewable energy sector

Calvo, Guiomar; Valero, Alicia

doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2021.100640

Cited by 106 publications

(50 citation statements)

References 40 publications

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“…ITO back contacts are the traditional option for (semi)transparent photovoltaic devices and have relevant advantages for the new semiconductors based on ZnO and solid-state polymers [10]. However, market drive toward low-cost photovoltaics is reducing the use of ITO as a transparent electrode, first due to the expensive vacuum sputtering process required for preparing these electrodes [11], together with the strategic availability of indium (only 16,000 tons in earth [12]). Therefore, new generation of commercial devices have reduced dramatically the use of ITO for cost effective polymer solar cells.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

ZnO Electrodeposition Model for Morphology Control

Orozco-Messana

Camaratta

2022

Nanomaterials

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In this research, a model for electrodeposition of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures over indium-doped tin-oxide (ITO) glass using pulsed current and zinc chloride as source of zinc was proposed. For the model, reactions kinetics rate constants were evaluated by obtaining the reaction product solid mass of the various species through time using an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM). To obtain a mathematical model of the electrodeposition using Ansys CFX 2D simulation software, the reaction kinetics rates were used to calculate mass transfer in the volume closest to the surface. The model was applied to the experimental electrodeposition conditions to validate its accuracy. Dense wurtzite nanostructures with controlled morphology were obtained on a indium-doped tin-oxide (ITO) glass. Sample characterization was performed using high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) on focused ion beam milled (FIBed) sheets from wurtzite mono-crystals. Average crystallite size was evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using the Scherrer equation, and superficial areas were evaluated by Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) method. Through the experimental results, a chemical model was developed for the competing reactions based on the speciation of zinc considering pH evolution, and kinetic constants, on the oxygen rich aqueous environment. Owing to the model, an accurate prediction of thickness and type of electrodeposited layers, under given conditions, is achieved. This allows an excellent control of the optical properties of Wurtzite as a photon absorber, for an efficient separation of the electron-hole pair for conduction of the electric charges formed. The large surface area, and small wurtzite crystallites evenly distributed on the thin film electrodeposited over the ITO conductive layer are promising features for later dye-sensitized photovoltaic cell production.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

ZnO Electrodeposition Model for Morphology Control

Orozco-Messana

Camaratta

2022

Nanomaterials

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“…Although fear of mineral scarcity is nothing new (Schmidt, 2019), one cannot deny that future supply will be increasingly restricted without additional mineral reserves, and that extraction costs may continue to rise. Consequentially, there may be lack of access to critical minerals in near future, which in turn may slow economic growth and give rise to challenges regarding green transitioning (Calvo & Valero, 2021;Herrington, 2021).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Transition to Marine Mining?

Bang

Trellevik

2022

SSRN Journal

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“…The 20th century has been characterised by a drastic increase in global material extraction, and this trend is far from changing in the 21st century [1,2]. In the last decades, we have seen a considerable increase in the demand for certain metals, especially intended for the manufacture of electric and electronic components [3,4].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In the "Mission Innovation" signed in Paris in 2015, 20 countries agreed to promote the acceleration of innovation on clean energies to make them more affordable and accessible to all, and achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement and pathways to net-zero [3]. This, in turn, increased the investment of governments and deployment of renewable energies, a type of technology that requires a considerable amount of critical materials in the manufacturing process [4,5].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Simulation to Recover Niobium and Tantalum from the Tin Slags of the Old Penouta Mine: A Case Study

et al. 2021

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Demand for niobium and tantalum is increasing exponentially as these are essential ingredients for the manufacture of, among others, capacitors in technological devices and ferroniobium. Mine tailings rich in such elements could constitute an important source of Nb and Ta in the future and alleviate potential supply risks. This paper evaluates the possibility of recovering niobium and tantalum from the slags generated during the tin beneficiation process of mine tailings from the old Penouta mine, located in Spain. To do so, a simulation of the processes required to beneficiate and refine both elements is carried out. After carbothermic tin reduction, the slags are sent to a hydrometallurgical process where niobium oxide and tantalum oxide are obtained at the end. Reagents, water, and energy consumption, in addition to emissions, effluents, and product yields, are assessed. Certain factors were identified as critical, and recirculation was encouraged in the model to maximise production and minimise reagents’ use and wastes. With this simulation, considering 3000 production hours per year, the metal output from the tailings of the old mine could cover around 1% and 7.4% of the world annual Nb and Ta demand, respectively.

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Strategic mineral resources: Availability and future estimations for the renewable energy sector

Cited by 106 publications

References 40 publications

ZnO Electrodeposition Model for Morphology Control

ZnO Electrodeposition Model for Morphology Control

Transition to Marine Mining?

Simulation to Recover Niobium and Tantalum from the Tin Slags of the Old Penouta Mine: A Case Study

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