Structural determination of pteriatoxins A, B and C, extremely potent toxins from the bivalve Pteria penguin

Identification of gymnodimine D and presence of gymnodimine variants in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii from the Baltic Sea

“…Pinnatoxins were first detected in seafood before the dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum was shown to be the causative organism of toxin production (Rhodes et al, 2010(Rhodes et al, , 2011. Pinnatoxins EeH are produced by dinoflagellates (Selwood et al, , 2014, whereas other known pinnatoxins and pteriatoxins (Takada et al, 2001) are thought to be formed in shellfish via metabolism of pinnatoxin F and G . Recently portimine, a polycyclic ether with a five-membered cyclic imine ring, was isolated from a V. rugosum isolate (Selwood et al, 2013).…”

Prevalence and persistence of gymnodimines in clams from the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia) studied by mouse bioassay and LC–MS/MS

“…Gymnodimines (GYMs) are marine toxins that belong the spirocyclic imine ring group linked ether moieties of toxins together with spirolides (Ciminiello et al, 2007;Hu et al, 2001Hu et al, , 1995Hu et al, , 1996aMacKinnon et al, 2006;Roach et al, 2009), pinnatoxins (Chou et al, 1996a,b;Takada et al, 2001a;Uemura et al, 1995), pteriatoxins (Takada et al, 2001b), prorocentrolides (Hu, 1996;Torigoe et al, 1988) and spiro-prorocentrimine (Lu et al, 2001). Gymnodimine (GYM-A) was isolated from oysters (Seki et al, 1995;Stewart et al, 1997) showing a unique structure with butenolide, spiro and cyclicimine moieties (Fig.…”

Spirolides and Cyclic Imines: Toxicological Profile

“…Only a few reports were concerned with the acute toxicity of pteriatoxins, but they revealed that these toxins induce animal lethality at doses between 0.008 and 0.1 mg/kg when administrated to mouse by i.p. injection, with toxic symptoms resembling those of pinnatoxins (see Takada et al 2001). The atypical stability of the aliphatic cyclic imine in pinnatoxins (Jackson et al 2012) is probably associated to their high oral toxicity, highest among the cyclic imine toxins.…”