Swimmer's itch: etiology, impact, and risk factors in Europe

Soldánová, Miroslava; Selbach, Christian; Kalbe, Martin; Kostadinova, Aneta; Sures, Bernd

doi:10.1016/j.pt.2012.12.002

Cited by 97 publications

(114 citation statements)

References 76 publications

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“…In North America and Europe, where most of the research has been focused, outbreaks occur in recreational ponds and reservoirs. These outbreaks have been reviewed extensively (7,8,70,71). Species of Trichobilharzia have been reported to cause dermatitis from other areas as well, such as Rwanda-Burundi (72), South Africa (73,74), New Zealand and Australia (75)(76)(77)(78)(79), Malaysia/Indonesia (80)(81)(82), Iran (65,(83)(84)(85)(86), United Arab Emirates (66), Thailand (87), and China (88,89) in the Eastern Hemisphere and Argentina (57,90,91), Chile (11), and El Salvador (92) in the Western Hemisphere.…”

Section: Diversity Of Schistosomes Causing Dermatitismentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Usually, natural preserves support diverse and abundant populations of potential hosts of schistosomes, so these areas may serve as hot spots for outbreaks of cercarial dermatitis. Although eutrophication contributes to infection risk, cases of cercarial dermatitis or findings of avian schistosomes have also been reported from oligotrophic or mesotrophic systems (8). In addition, other abiotic and biotic factors and human-induced habitat alterations may influence the occurrence of schistosomes and cercarial dermatitis, such as altered hydrology conditions with water-level fluctuation, ice cover, acidification, or dam constructions (268,292,293), anthropogenic pollutants (268,(294)(295)(296)(297), biodiversity change in terms of introducing nonindigenous species that may affect endemic parasites (298), host susceptibility or resistance (9), predation upon trematode free-swimming larval stages by fish and other aquatic animals (295,299,300), or interspecific competition of parasites within the same snail host (301)(302)(303).…”

Section: Global Warming and Eutrophicationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The data in the literature suggest that lakes represent high-risk areas for cercarial dermatitis, as they are attractive for a large number of people, usually for recreational purposes (8). Cercarial dermatitis develops as a result of sensitization of the human immune system (232,260), and repeated exposures to cercariae influence the occurrence and intensity of subsequent infections.…”

Section: Recreational Activities and Cercarial Dermatitismentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Older reports refer to 75% or more of the population experiencing the characteristic symptoms of "koganbyo" in the areas of Japan where the disease is most highly endemic (5). Recent reviews (6)(7)(8)(9) agree that in some regions cercarial dermatitis has appeared as a new problem, either because the dermatitis was previously unknown (e.g., the U.S. Southwest and Chile) or because the number of reports of outbreaks increased (8,10,11). Consequently, cercarial dermatitis is now regarded as an emerging disease.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Avian Schistosomes and Outbreaks of Cercarial Dermatitis

et al. 2015

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SUMMARY Cercarial dermatitis (swimmer's itch) is a condition caused by infective larvae (cercariae) of a species-rich group of mammalian and avian schistosomes. Over the last decade, it has been reported in areas that previously had few or no cases of dermatitis and is thus considered an emerging disease. It is obvious that avian schistosomes are responsible for the majority of reported dermatitis outbreaks around the world, and thus they are the primary focus of this review. Although they infect humans, they do not mature and usually die in the skin. Experimental infections of avian schistosomes in mice show that in previously exposed hosts, there is a strong skin immune reaction that kills the schistosome. However, penetration of larvae into naive mice can result in temporary migration from the skin. This is of particular interest because the worms are able to migrate to different organs, for example, the lungs in the case of visceral schistosomes and the central nervous system in the case of nasal schistosomes. The risk of such migration and accompanying disorders needs to be clarified for humans and animals of interest (e.g., dogs). Herein we compiled the most comprehensive review of the diversity, immunology, and epidemiology of avian schistosomes causing cercarial dermatitis.

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Section: Diversity Of Schistosomes Causing Dermatitismentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Global Warming and Eutrophicationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Recreational Activities and Cercarial Dermatitismentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Avian Schistosomes and Outbreaks of Cercarial Dermatitis

et al. 2015

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“…The symptoms are clinically recognized by initial erythema and cutaneous itch and then subsequent macular and papular eruptions (12, 13). Although several factors can favor the presence of thriving snail populations and increase the risk of dermatitis outbreaks, one specific circumstance that contributes is the prolonged presence of high-density bird populations in lakes, resulting in eutrophication due to the feces deposited in the water (8,14). Eutrophication encourages the growth of aquatic vegetation, providing an abundance of food and thus increasing the snail and wild bird populations needed to support the schistosome life cycle (10, 15).…”

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confidence: 99%

Real-Time PCR and Sequencing Assays for Rapid Detection and Identification of Avian Schistosomes in Environmental Samples

Jothikumar

Mull

Brant

et al. 2015

Appl Environ Microbiol

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e Cercarial dermatitis, also known as swimmer's itch, is an allergenic skin reaction followed by intense itching caused by schistosome cercariae penetrating human skin. Cercarial dermatitis outbreaks occur globally and are frequently associated with freshwater lakes and are occasionally associated with marine or estuarine waters where birds reside year-round or where migratory birds reside. In this study, a broadly reactive TaqMan assay targeting 18S rRNA gene (ribosomal DNA [rDNA]) sequences that was based on a genetically diverse panel of schistosome isolates representing 13 genera and 20 species (the 18S rDNA TaqMan assay) was developed. A PCR assay was also developed to amplify a 28S rDNA region for subsequent sequencing to identify schistosomes. When applied to surface water samples seeded with Schistosoma mansoni cercariae, the 18S rDNA TaqMan assay enabled detection at a level of 5 S. mansoni cercariae in 100 liters of lake water. The 18S rDNA TaqMan and 28S rDNA PCR sequencing assays were also applied to 100-liter water samples collected from lakes in Nebraska and Wisconsin where there were reported dermatitis outbreaks. Avian schistosome DNA was detected in 11 of 34 lake water samples using the TaqMan assay. Further 28S rDNA sequence analysis of positive samples confirmed the presence of avian schistosome DNA and provided a preliminary identification of the avian schistosomes in 10 of the 11 samples. These data indicate that the broadly schistosome-reactive TaqMan assay can be effective for rapid screening of large-volume water samples for detection of avian schistosomes, thereby facilitating timely response actions to mitigate or prevent dermatitis outbreaks. Additionally, samples positive by the 18S rDNA TaqMan assay can be further assayed using the 28S rDNA sequencing assay to both confirm the presence of schistosomes and contribute to their identification. In recent years, waterborne outbreaks of cercarial dermatitis, also known as swimmer's itch, have increasingly been reported worldwide (1-11). Cercarial dermatitis is caused by free-swimming cercariae of avian and mammalian schistosomes emerging from snails that penetrate and die within human skin, causing an inflammatory immune response (12). The symptoms are clinically recognized by initial erythema and cutaneous itch and then subsequent macular and papular eruptions (12, 13). Although several factors can favor the presence of thriving snail populations and increase the risk of dermatitis outbreaks, one specific circumstance that contributes is the prolonged presence of high-density bird populations in lakes, resulting in eutrophication due to the feces deposited in the water (8,14). Eutrophication encourages the growth of aquatic vegetation, providing an abundance of food and thus increasing the snail and wild bird populations needed to support the schistosome life cycle (10, 15).There are more than 100 species of schistosomes in 14 recognized genera, with new genera and species still being reported (16,17). Schistosomes have a two-host life cy...

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Helminthic Infections (Parasitic Worms)

2020

Atlas of Clinical Dermatopathology

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Swimmer's itch: etiology, impact, and risk factors in Europe

Cited by 97 publications

References 76 publications

Avian Schistosomes and Outbreaks of Cercarial Dermatitis

Avian Schistosomes and Outbreaks of Cercarial Dermatitis

Real-Time PCR and Sequencing Assays for Rapid Detection and Identification of Avian Schistosomes in Environmental Samples

Helminthic Infections (Parasitic Worms)

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