Tackling the Problem of Sensing Commonly Abused Drugs Through Nanomaterials and (Bio)Recognition Approaches

Abstract

We summarize herein the literature in the last decade, involving the use of nanomaterials and various (bio)recognition elements, such as antibodies, aptamers and molecularly imprinted polymers, for the development of sensitive and selective (bio)sensors for illicit drugs with a focus on electrochemical transduction systems. The use and abuse of illicit drugs remains an increasing challenge for worldwide authorities and, therefore, it is important to have accurate methods to detect them in seized samples, biological fluids and wastewaters. They are recently classified as the latest group of “emerging pollutants,” as their consumption has increased tremendously in recent years. Nanomaterials, antibodies, aptamers and molecularly imprinted polymers have gained much attention over the last decade in the development of (bio)sensors for a myriad of applications. The applicability of these (nano)materials, functionalized or not, has significantly increased, and are therefore highly suitable for use in the detection of drugs. Lately, such functionalized nanoscale materials have assisted in the detection of illicit drugs fingerprints, providing large surface area, functional groups and unique properties that facilitate sensitive and selective sensing. The review discusses the types of commonly abused drugs and their toxicological implications, classification of functionalized nanomaterials (graphene, carbon nanotubes), their fabrication, and their application on real samples in different fields of forensic science. Biosensors for drugs of abuse from the last decade's literature are then exemplified. It also offers insights into the prospects and challenges of bringing the functionalized nanobased technology to the end user in the laboratories or in-field.

Stimuli Response of Eu3+-Based Metallo-Supramolecular Polymers toward Pharmaceutical Amines

“…To further complement this analyte-dependent disassembly mechanism, 1 H NMR experiments were performed, as presented in Figure 4. The 1 H NMR spectra of the ligands were compared to the spectra of the related polymers (MSPs).…”

“…In the last decade, there has been a significant and troubling worldwide increase in addictions and death cases as a result of noncontrolled prescription of pain relief and psychostimulant drugs alongside illegal synthetic manufacturing of opioids such as fentanyl. , A combination of these chemicals with street drugs is considered to enhance addiction phenomena and death rates following misuses and drug overdoses. , As part of the global challenge to answer the spreading and concerning use and abuse of these drugs, an emerging need for the development of new sensors with high sensitivity, fast response, low energy consumption, and low cost is required. Numerous detection techniques and devices were reported for illicit drugs and psychoactive substances based on IR and Raman spectroscopy, − gas and liquid chromatography combined with mass spectroscopy , alongside colorimetric − and immunoassays. , Part of these analytical methods requires expert handling of complex and expensive laboratory equipment, while others allow only qualitative response or low selectivity and may suffer from photobleaching.…”

“…I n the last decade, there has been a significant and troubling worldwide increase in addictions and death cases as a result of noncontrolled prescription of pain relief and psychostimulant drugs alongside illegal synthetic manufacturing of opioids such as fentanyl. 1,2 A combination of these chemicals with street drugs is considered to enhance addiction phenomena and death rates following misuses and drug overdoses. 3,4 As part of the global challenge to answer the spreading and concerning use and abuse of these drugs, an emerging need for the development of new sensors with high sensitivity, fast response, low energy consumption, and low cost is required.…”

Electrochemical detection of mephedrone using a graphene screen-printed electrode: a new sensitive and selective approach to identify synthetic cathinones in forensic analysis

“…In this sense, due to an increased surface area and high electron transfer rate in screen-printed working electrodes based on conductive graphene inks (SPE-GP), these sensors have been used to improve the sensitivity of many electroanalytical methods, [38][39][40] including for application in forensic analysis, 41 but never hitherto for MEP. Moreover, to improve the sensitivity for electrochemical detection, the adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) technique has been reported for many applications, 42 such as in doping control 43,44 or forensic analysis.…”

Recent Advances in the Development of Portable Electrochemical Sensors for Controlled Substances

“…Quick, affordable, and reliable tools and methods are needed to detect such substances under certain circumstances so that early intervention can be deployed, and relevant laws can be justifiably and timely enforced while preventing or minimizing injustice and unnecessary stigmatization. Over the years, many methods have been proposed and/or developed [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Although color tests for drugs are quick, and they are still being used by law enforcement agencies and sometimes even by the general public [ 12 , 13 , 14 ], false results from such presumptive tests are not that uncommon.…”