Teaching by Machinery: A Review of Research

Effectiveness of learning from a programmed text compared with a conventional text covering the same material.

“…The relative effectiveness of learning from the two texts was measured by the final examination of the course. Leith (1962) reviewed the literature on the effectiveness of programmed versus comparable regular material. He concluded that programmed texts save time over conventional texts but do not lead to better performance on a content examination.…”

The Effects of Linear and Branching Methods of Programmed Instruction on Learning and Retention of a Topic in Elementary Science

“…Experience with Crowder programs suggests that, unlike some linear programs, initial ability differences are preserved. Claims made for reduction in correlation with linear programs are, however, controversial (Leith, 1963). In the present case the correlation coefficients obtained were: r=-495 (significant) for the linear group and r=-89 (significant) for the branching group.…”

Impairment of Arithmetic Skills in Cerebral Palsied Children and a Programed Remedial Approach

“…On the minimal criteria for information concerning length of program, number of students participating, amount taught, time taken and amount learnt, only six studies were satisfactory. However, there is evidence to suggest (Leith, 1963) that though programed instruction is not superior to conventional teaching in all respects, children taught by that method learn in less time, retain more information over a longer period of time and have a better understanding of the subject than those instructed by conventional methods. Unfortunately, advocates of programed instruction tend to ignore the immense PROGRAMED IN STRU CTI 0 N practical and administrative difficulties of introducing this form of teaching into the classroom (Haskell, 1966).…”