Tear production, intraocular pressure and conjunctival bacterial flora in selected captive wild ruminants

Abstract

Objective Evaluation of tear production (Schirmer's tear test, STT) and measurement of intraocular pressure (IOP) were performed in a population of captive wild ungulates in a Slovenian ZOO during routine annual health check. Animals studied In total, 10 fallow deer (Dama dama), 25 mouflons (Ovis aries musimon), 20 alpine ibexes (Capra ibex), and three alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) were included in the study. Methods Tear production was performed by Schirmer's tear test, IOP was measured with an applanation tonometer, and ophthalmological examination was conducted with slit-lamp biomicroscopy and indirect ophthalmoscopy. Conjunctival swabs were taken and submitted for aerobic bacteriology and for detection of Chlamydia spp. and Mycoplasma spp. tested by PCR. Results Average tear production (in mm/min) was 17.8 AE 3.16 for fallow deer, 17.9 AE 3.87 for mouflons, and 11.7 AE 3.87 for ibexes. Mean intraocular pressure (IOP, in mm Hg) was 14.1 AE 2.48 for fallow deer, 14.9 AE 2.20 for mouflons, and 13.1 AE 2.43 for ibexes. For chamois, average tear production and IOP were 14.5 AE 3.0 and 10.2 AE 2.5, respectively; this is the first record of STT I and IOP in chamois. Bacteriological swabs were positive for bacteria in 100% of the fallow deer, 56% of mouflons, 35% of ibexes, and 100% of chamois. Gram-positive bacteria were predominant. Moraxella spp., Chlamydia spp., and Mycoplasma spp. were not detected. Conclusion The reported values were obtained in animals under manual restraint only to be applicative in similar conditions.

Measurement of Tear Production and Intraocular Pressure in Clinically Conscious Normal Captive Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

“…Studies show that, even within the same family, STT values can be highly variable; also, the methodology is different. There are STT data on conscious, manually restrained European fallow deer ( Dama dama ): An average STT of 18.7 ± 5.1 mm/min and 17.8 ± 3.16 mm/min [ 8 , 12 ]. These values were higher than in manually restrained brown brocket deer ( Mazama gouazoubira ) (8.9 ± 1.8 mm/min) and similar to in sambar deer ( Rusa unicolor ) (STT 18.8 ± 4.7 mm/min), but higher than in anaesthetised Persian fallow deer ( Dama mesopotamica ) (STT 10.5 ± 6.5 mm/min) [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].…”

“…Thus far, there have been limited studies giving the normal values of STT and IOP in wild ruminants. There are data on the captive mouflon, Alpine ibex, Alpine chamois, captive eland, Nubian ibex [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], fallow deer, and white-tailed deer [ 11 , 12 ]. However, there are differences in methodology between these studies: For example, examining animals under anaesthesia or physical restraint; or measuring IOP with different tonometers (applanation or rebound) [ 13 , 14 , 15 ].…”

Comparison of Cortisol Concentrations in Different Matrices in Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex) at the Zoo

“…Concentrations of C increase in stressful situations; for example, high concentrations can be found in animals in confined environments, those that present subclinically or clinically apparent infection or parasitic and metabolic diseases. Health protocols [29,37,45] and animal welfare [15] are an important part of the strategy at our zoo. In addition to welfare, we pay great attention to the non-invasive sampling of animals, their appropriate nutrition, and knowledge regarding individual and group behaviour.…”

“…Studies in horses [25], sheep [16] and seals have been described [36]. Tear production in the Alpine ibex can be determined using the Schirmer tear test [37]. In horses, tears were collected by invasively placing plain glass capillary tubes in the ventral cul-de-sac of the conjunctiva overlying the third eyelid without topical anaesthesia [25].…”