Temporal and spatial evolution of global iron ore supply-demand and trade structure

Song, Yunting; Wang, Nuo; Yu, Anqi

doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101506

Cited by 31 publications

(7 citation statements)

References 23 publications

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“…[64] Studies that consider supply and demand for iron and manganese, focus on their use in steel and those that consider titanium, consider its use in pigments and within the aerospace industry. [65][66][67] From such studies it is difficult to extrapolate supply and demand to battery applications. As with nickel, however, battery applications form a small percentage of iron, titanium, and manganese demand.…”

Section: Supply Versus Demandmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Supply and demand studies for iron focused entirely on supply and demand for steel, as it is estimated that 99% of the iron market lies within the steel industry. [ 66 ] As with nickel, widespread adoption of titanium‐ and iron‐ and manganese‐based cathode materials will add further strain onto resources with already high demand. Here, we highlight the dangers of defining any given battery material as sustainable, as in doing so we lose foresight of future sustainability issues.…”

Section: Mining and Materials Managementmentioning

confidence: 99%

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A Perspective on the Sustainability of Cathode Materials used in Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Murdock

Toghill

Tapia‐Ruiz

2021

Advanced Energy Materials

227

100

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tation currently accounts for 23% of global energy-related CO 2 emissions. [1] Electric vehicles (EVs) thus represent a rapidly expanding market, with at least 20% of road vehicles estimated to be electrically powered by 2030. [1] LIB technology takes great prominence within the automobile industry, due to its unbeatable electrochemical performance and lightweight, portable nature. Its impressive performance can be attributed, in part, to the low weight and small ionic radius of the Li + ions (0.76 Å), allowing fast ion transport. This fast transport, along with its low reduction potential (-3.04 V vs standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)), [2] allows for high power density as well as volumetric and gravimetric capacity. Such properties are of critical importance for EVs. [3] With the increased demand for high energy density LIBs for EVs, comes reductions in battery cost and subsequent volatility in material supply. In light of the immense scale of transport electrification that is being proposed in order to meet CO 2 emission targets, considerable attention is being directed toward the socioenvironmental and economic impact of such an increase in material demand. Of particular focus are lithium-ion cathode materials, many of which are composed of lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), and cobalt (Co), in varying concentrations (Figure 1a). The cathode constitutes more than 20% of LIB's overall cost and is a key factor in determining the energy and power density of the battery (Figure 1b). [3,4] It is, therefore, vital to maximise the cathode's performance while minimizing its cost, to make EVs more accessible for society.The high cost of cathode materials is largely attributed to the presence of cobalt-a rare and expensive element mined primarily in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)-which has been deemed necessary in the past to deliver high energy densities in LIBs. For example, the active material within the commercial NMC111 cathode (LiNi 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.33 O 2 ) costs ca. £17 kg −1 , producing 3.88 kWh kg −1 . [5] This high cost is largely attributed to the relatively large amount of cobalt within the electrode (£ 25 kg −1 ). [6] This cost is over 350 times greater than that of iron (£0.068 kg −1 ), [7] which reflects its relative high natural abundance. A combination of political instability within the DRC, social impacts within the mining sector, and supply chain volatility and ambiguity have driven a decrease in cobalt content in NMC cathodes (e.g., going from NMC 111 to NMC811 (LiNi 0.8 Mn 0.1 Co 0.1 O 2 )) and zero-cobalt alternatives such as LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 spinels, LiMO 2 disordered rocksalts and Electric vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries are viewed as a vital green technology required to meet CO 2 emission targets as part of a global effort to tackle climate change. Positive electrode (cathode) materials within such batteries are rich in critical metals-particularly lithium, cobalt, and nickel. The large-scale mining of such metals, to meet increasing battery demands, poses con...

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Section: Supply Versus Demandmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Mining and Materials Managementmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Perspective on the Sustainability of Cathode Materials used in Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Murdock

Toghill

Tapia‐Ruiz

2021

Advanced Energy Materials

227

100

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…Ore demand remains high around the world, particularly in China, the United States, India, and other populated countries [1,2]. With the growth of consumer markets in developing countries, energy demand is rising, and ore demand frequently surpasses supply [3][4][5].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Eco-Geological Environment in the Concentrated Mining Area of Mineral Resources

Zhang

et al. 2022

Sustainability

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The urbanization rate in China has been increasing in recent years, and along with the increasing intensity of human engineering activities, ecological and geological (eco-geological) degradation have become key factors impeding sustainable urban development. Taking the concentrated mineral exploitation area of Tonghua City as an example, the distribution of mines in the area is concentrated and the spatial heterogeneity is significant. This paper includes 14 evaluation indicators in three aspects: eco-geological environment background, anthropogenic and mining engineering activities, and environmental pollution. Then, based on game theory combined with ANP-CV (Analytic Network Process and Coefficient of Variation), two empowerment methods, GIS spatial calculation is used to evaluate the eco-geological environment quality (EEQ). The results showed that the EEQ was divided into grades I–V from high to low, with areas of 21.13%, 30.35%, 27.00%, 14.30%, and 7.22%, respectively; the EEQ of the Hun River basin has a high spatial autocorrelation and low EEQ, and the EEQ grade of mines was divided on this basis; the hot spot analysis is useful for determining the EEQ, as well as for allocating mine restoration resources in a sensible manner. Finally, we propose countermeasures to improve EEQ, and this study can provide a scientific basis for ecological construction and geological environmental protection in Tonghua City.

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“…Marine industry is an important pillar in the development of the world economy (Song et al, 2019; Wang & Wang, 2019a), and container liner shipping is an important part of the marine industry. With the increasing importance of container transportation in international trade, container shipping volume has sharply increased.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

On Probability Distributions of the Time Deviation Law of Container Liner Ships Under Interference Uncertainty

Song

Wang

2020

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A: Statistics in Society

Self Cite

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Container liner shipping is a kind of transportation mode that is operated according to a schedule. Although the goal is to operate container liner ships on time, the actual arrival time and handling time often deviate from the schedule due to uncertain factors. The identification of a proper probability distribution to describe time deviation law will have a significant impact on accurately recognizing the uncertainty of the operation of container liner ships. In view of this problem, this paper discusses the basic characteristics of container liner ships’ operation time, analyses the properties of relevant probability distributions, and selects representative container ports around the world to collect data on the container liner ships’ operation time for statistical verification. The results show that under schedule constraints and interference uncertainty, the time deviation presents a specific state between a fixed length and random distribution that conforms to the properties of an Erlang distribution. Given that container liner shipping follows the same operation rules worldwide, it is reasonable to deduce that the time deviation law could be generalized to other container ports. Finally, the practical value of this study is demonstrated through quantitative evaluation of port congestion degree under various probabilistic models.

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Temporal and spatial evolution of global iron ore supply-demand and trade structure

Cited by 31 publications

References 23 publications

A Perspective on the Sustainability of Cathode Materials used in Lithium‐Ion Batteries

A Perspective on the Sustainability of Cathode Materials used in Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Eco-Geological Environment in the Concentrated Mining Area of Mineral Resources

On Probability Distributions of the Time Deviation Law of Container Liner Ships Under Interference Uncertainty

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