“…In the numerical model the hardening effects were taken into account by considering the Johnson-Cook model [27], while the strain rate effects were taken into account by considering the Cowper-Symonds model [28]. These models are described by Equation ( 19), with the relevant values shown in Table 1 for the hardening parameters (B, θ) and for the strain rate parameters (D, q) [29,30]. In Equation (19), plastic stress, yield strength, plastic strain, and plastic strain rate are denoted by σ, A, ε pl , and .…”