The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development

Abstract

The high Andean arid plateau extends through Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. Within the desert matrix, basins contain wetlands that provide essential resources for human activity, and habitat for biodiversity highly adapted to extreme temperatures, altitudes, and salinity gradients. In these waterscapes, the water balance, even without human intervention, is negative and their unique biodiversity and lifeways are now confronted with an unprecedented level of development from lithium mining for rechargeable batteries. The “lithium triangle” coincides with the areas of highest abundance of the altiplano’s iconic flamingos. Flamingos are an ideal flagship for conservation because of the landscape scale at which they use wetlands, and Network of Wetlands for Flamingo Conservation, which implies the sustainable use of these wetlands, can be invoked to determine priority conservation actions. Since 2016, mining exploration has increased throughout the region, most notably in Argentina. A review of the Environmental Impact Reports (IIAs) for projects in Catamarca, Argentina, shows that they do not comply with national guidelines: they do not adequately address water budgets, consider protected area status, engage local communities, or consider cumulative and synergistic impacts. While the transition to “green” energy sources holds the promise of mitigating the negative impacts of traditional energy sources responsible for climate change, a truly sustainable energy sector would consider the full life cycle of the battery (“cradle-to-grave”), the social and environmental impacts of mining, and the feedback processes across the coupled socioecological systems, from raw material mining through production, use, recycling, and disposal.

Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines

“…A reduction in water levels can also be inferred from changes in flora and fauna. Flamingos could be a strong indicator of environmental damage, owing to the landscape scale at which they use wetlands 42 . In the Salar de Atacama, a reduction of 10% and 12% has been reported in the populations of James and Andean flamingos, respectively, which is linked to the reduction of surface water, particularly in winter 38 .…”

Extreme Partitioning of Relic and Contemporary Waters in Arid Environments

“…But the large perennially flowing streams that exist at the colder and slightly wetter climate at these higher elevations, have a substantial portion of their flow composed of modern water. Vegetated wetland complexes or vegas can be extensive and often form near basin floors at the periphery of salars, high elevation wetlands or peatlands referred to in this region as bofedales also occur sporadically on the Puna above 3800 masl around groundwater outcrops or springs (Marconi et al, 2022). Although these two systems are characterized by different ecology, they display similar hydrological characteristics in that they are strongly influenced by recent precipitation inputs; we refer to all these systems together herein as vegas.…”

The impacts of environmental, social and governance (ESG) issues in achieving sustainable lithium supply in the Lithium Triangle

“…The potential for hydrological and hence ecosystem collapse at any given salar system being exploited has the potential to be replicated across many salars in the region. This could result in wetland degradation at a landscape-scale leading to significant declines of already globally threatened species and the triggering of increased threat levels to vulnerable species dependent on such salar ecosystems (Marconi et al 2022). The exploitation of lithium and the sustainable development of an industry that purports to provide a solution to the challenges of climate change needs to realistically consider and address such risks.…”