The chalcolithic period in the Levant

Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel

“…We postulate that olive-oil production, which began along the Carmel coast in the Late Neolithic, had by Chalcolithic time shifted inland to other areas of the southern Levant. During the Bronze Age this activity then spread to the west (Simmonds, 1976;Liphschitz, 1986;Gilead, 1988) and became dispersed along increasing stretches of the Mediterranean basin margins.…”

“…Information available for the Neolithic in Israel (Gilead, 1988;Gopher, 1993;Gopher & Gophna, 1993;Kuijt & Bar-Yosef, 1994) serves as a base with which to interpret archaeological material discovered at the submerged Carmel coastal sites where olives were found. A recent study of such prehistoric settlements to the east of the study area has refined knowledge of the chronology of cultural entities (Yarmukian, Lodian, Wadi Rabah, Ghassulian), from the end of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic to the Early Chalcolithic; a time-span ranging from the 8th to the 7th millennium  (Table 1).…”

Secondary burial cemeteries, visibility and land tenure: A view from the southern Levant Chalcolithic period

“…There are scholars who follow Service (1962) and suggest a hereditary chiefdom society with centers that coordinate social, economic and religious activities (Gibson and Rowan, 2006;Levy, 1986Levy, , 1995Levy, , 2006. Other scholars find the archaeological evidence to reflects a lesser level of complexity (Epstein, 1998;Gilead, 1988aGilead, , 1993Gilead, , 1995Gophna and Tsuk, 2005;Hermon, 2008;Rosen, 1993). The society consisted of rural A relatively small numbers of secondary burials have been reported from the southern Levant prior to the Chalcolithic period.…”

“…Craft specialists such as ivory and copper producers are worth noting (Gilead, 1988a;Levy, 1995;Rowan and Golden, 2009). The nature of the socio-political organization of the Chalcolithic communities is controversial.…”

“…The Chalcolithic communities, mainly of sedentary farmers, practiced mixed agriculture; cultivation of cereals, pulses and fruit trees, herding of sheep-goats and raising of, pigs and cattle (Gilead, 1988a;Levy, 1995;Rowan and Golden, 2009). Craft specialists such as ivory and copper producers are worth noting (Gilead, 1988a;Levy, 1995;Rowan and Golden, 2009).…”