The Changing Pattern of Domestic Cannabis Cultivation in the United Kingdom and Its Impact on the Cannabis Market

Abstract

With improvements in both technology and information cannabis is being increasingly grown indoors for domestic use, rather than being imported. This study examines 50 cannabis farms detected by an English police force, and examines the characteristics of the 61 suspects associated with them. The study highlights a UK pattern in domestic cultivation, that is moving away from large scale commercial cultivation, at times co-ordinated by South East Asian organised crime groups, to increased cultivation within residential premises by British citizens. Offenders range from those who have no prior criminal history to those who are serious and persistent offenders. The ramifications for law enforcement agencies and policy formers are discussed.

Propagating the Haze? Community and professional perceptions of cannabis cultivation and the impacts of prohibition

“…Whilst UK research has found evidence of links between cannabis production and OCGs, this was demonstrably in a small minority of cases (Kirby and Penna, 2010;Kirby and Peal, 2015). In the current research, assumptions of violent, large-scale and/or OCG-linked cultivators were contradicted by reporting from professionals and cultivators themselves, of a profile of oftenvulnerable individuals cultivating due to debt (not only drug specific debt but general domestic debt in the current economy).…”

“…This reflects a common global change to self-sufficient cannabis production, particularly across developed nations (Decorte and Potter, 2015). Secondly, there has been a shift in the type of cultivation, from large-scale commercial production in industrial property to a 'franchising' model using smaller residential or domestic premises (Kirby and Peal, 2015) in order to reduce both legal (detection and prosecution) risks and the potential for illegal 'taxing' (theft) of crops. Notably, the latter is increasingly reported as a means by which local individuals can be controlled through debt bondage by the dealers for whom they produce the crop (ACPO, 2012), to the extent that the phenomenon is being described by Police Chiefs as 'modern slavery' (NPCC, 2014) with specific association with organised criminal gangs (Silverstone, 2011).…”

The Big Unknown: Who Grows Cannabis in Albania?—a Case-based Approach to the Cannabis Farmers in Albania

“…International studies have shown a connection between the size of the plantation and the level of criminal behaviour of those involved in cultivation. As more cultivation has moved to family settings, less involvement of criminal hierarchies have been noticed (Hakkarainen & Perälä 2011;Wiecko & Thompson 2014;Potter & Klein 2020;Kirby & Peal 2015). However, in the literature, there is a division between cultivation for non-profit purposes and profit purposes.…”

“…Most of the cannabis growers that are prosecuted by the police are men. While men represent 95% of the total accused under the selected sample, men and boys represent more than 98% of the total accused for drug-related crimes for the selected years at country level following the general trend of those involved in cannabis cultivation (Alvarez, Gamella & Parra 2016;Hakkarainen & Perälä 2011;Kirby & Peal 2015). The percentage of women involved does not fluctuate throughout the years (author's calculations from the General Prosecutor Office reports 2014-2020).…”

Cannabis cultivation in Spain: A profile of plantations, growers and production systems

“…Canada, Mexico and the US are now among the major cannabis producers in America, and Australia and New Zealand are described as close to self-sufficiency (UNODC, 2015). In Europe, countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom -formerly importers of cannabis resin -have developed their own marihuana-producing industries (Decorte, Potter, & Bouchard, 2011;Decorte, 2007Decorte, , 2010EMCDDA, 2012;Jansen, 2002;Kirby & Peal, 2015;Korf, 2011;Potter, 2008Potter, , 2010UNODC, 2015;Wouters, 2008).…”