The Combs of Honeybees as Composite Materials

Abstract

SUMMARYMechanical changes in the combs of the African honeybee, A. m Mature brood combs are a compromise between the very different materials, wax and silk, which when combined produce a structure with new properties that differ from its individual constituents.

Hygropreference and brood care in the honeybee (Apis mellifera)

“…Larval cocoons are hygroscopic and can provide a buffering effect on humidity fluctuations (Chauvin et al, 1979). Since larval cocoons accumulate in the cells in which the brood develops (Hepburn and Kurstjens, 1988), the physical properties of the comb can buffer humidity fluctuations (Ellis MB, unpublished data). Water also evaporates from the nectar stores; however this source is seasonal and dependent on floral availability and quality.…”

Physical properties of honeybee silk: a review

“…While wax, in its hexagonal structure (Pirk et al 2004), is the basic building material for the nest, with continued use the combs become modified by the additions of silk and propolis (Hepburn and Kurstjens 1988). Thus, much of the honeybee nest gradually changes from a single phase (wax) to a composite (wax/ silk) material.…”

“…Thus, much of the honeybee nest gradually changes from a single phase (wax) to a composite (wax/ silk) material. Some of the material properties of the individual phases of the honeybee nest have previously been characterized (Hepburn 1986;Hepburn et al 1979;Hepburn and Kurstjens 1988;Kurstjens et al 1985Kurstjens et al , 1990, but particularly important recent studies on the molecular structure of honeybee silk (Sutherland et al 2006 et seq.) necessitate a review on the composition and properties of honeybee ά-helical silk ( Figure 1), the elastic element in combs of all honeybee species.…”

Hierarchical, multilayered cell walls reinforced by recycled silk cocoons enhance the structural integrity of honeybee combs

“…After the pupae have metamorphosed into bees and left the cells, the worker bees cover this silk with wax. Thus, the comb becomes a composite material with usage (2). In addition to structural functions, the honeycomb is an important clue to recognize the nestmate (3)(4)(5) and to understand the evolution of honeybees (6).…”

“…Thus, whilst the honeybee comb is a most studied natural cellular structure that has long fascinated mathematicians, physicists, and biologists (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18), it was not known until recently why the bees built the combs out of hexagonal cells (13). The mechanical properties of beeswax and the cell walls of the combs of African honeybees, Apis mellifera scutellata, have been studied using conventional tensile test methods (2,15). The stress-strain characteristics of the silk handdrawn from the living larvae of the bees have also been measured in air and different aqueous media (16,17).…”