“…The average difference between observed and predicted scores,
characterizes 2021 test scores for tested students relative to peers who share the same prior test scores and demographic characteristics. This approach was used in a recent analysis of national interim test score data (Goldhaber et al.,
2022) and a similar model was used by Kogan and Lavertu (2022) to estimate pandemic impacts in Ohio. The Appendix describes connections among these uses of MR.…”