“…Our rationale for using ex post realized firm performance volatility as a measure of ex ante corporate risk-taking is primarily drawn upon the asset pricing and corporate finance literature that measures risk or risk-taking as the volatility of stock returns (e.g., Brown, Jha, & Pacharn, 2015) or earnings (e.g., Faccio, Marchica, & Mura, 2016;Li, Griffin, Yue, & Zhao, 2013). For example, González-Urteaga and Rubio (2016) show that the default premium is one of key factors explaining the cross-sectional 4 variation of average volatility of risk premia, while Faccio, et al (2016) examine a relation between CEO gender and corporate risk-taking, measured as the standard deviation of the firm's ROA.…”