The Crossover Effect: a Review of Racial/Ethnic Variations in Risk for Substance Use and Substance Use Disorder Across Development

Abstract

Purpose of Review The “crossover” effect, a phenomenon by which some minority groups switch from low to high risk for substance use as a function of age, was first documented 25 years ago. However, rigorous methodological research examining the crossover effect has only recently emerged. The current paper reviews the past 25 years of research on the crossover effect, which has primarily examined the shift from low to high substance use risk among Blacks relative to Whites. Recent Findings Although findings regarding the crossover effect vary based on gender, socioeconomic status, and substance, Blacks and Hispanics appear to be at lower risk for some substance use— particularly binge drinking and cigarette smoking—than Whites during adolescence and early adulthood, but at higher risk for use in later life. Research regarding the crossover effect of substance use disorder and related problems is limited but more consistent with a similar pattern of effects observed. Summary Due to significant limitations of the extant literature examining the crossover effect, it requires additional research clarifying sociodemographic differences in the, identifying its mechanisms, and determining its clinical implications. Such research may have important implications for preventing racial/ethnic disparities in the consequences associated with disordered substance use.

Child Maltreatment, Fathers, and Adolescent Alcohol and Marijuana Use Trajectories

“…The smaller number of trajectory patterns (i.e., subgroups) identified in our study may be attributed to the fact that our sample was younger (age 12 at the first outcome assessment) and had lower endorsement rates of alcohol and marijuana use, which resulted in little variation in outcomes at baseline. Furthermore, our sample was primarily Black youth and a systematic review of the literature found that Black youth have lower substance use rates compared to White youth (Banks & Zapolski, 2018). Because our study relied on self-reported alcohol and marijuana use it is possible that participants underreported their substance use, but this would also be true of the population-based studies we cited.…”

“…On the other hand, developmental psychopathology scholars caution against solely focusing on the deficits associated with minority group status, including being Black, and urge researchers to also elucidate factors related to resilience (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). In this vein, we think it is important to highlight the lower rates of alcohol and marijuana use that have been found among Black youth (Banks & Zapolski, 2018).…”

Economic Effects of Adolescent to Adult Patterns of Cannabis Use: Full-Time Employment and Employment Stability

“…. Prior research highlights that while minorities tend to have lower average levels of use, the consequences of this use tend to be more pervasive, particularly for Blacks (Banks and Zapolski, 2018). As such, the economic consequences of any use found in this research may be specific to minority populations and not Whites.…”

Chronic stress, autonomic dysregulation and prospective drug use among African American emerging adults.

“…Although findings can vary based on gender, socioeconomic status, and substance use, trends of the progression of drug use have often demonstrated an “age/race crossover effect” among African Americans (see Banks & Zapolski, 2018 for review). Compared to European American adolescents, African American adolescents report later ages of initiation and lower levels of drug use, particularly with regard to alcohol use, binge drinking, cigarette smoking, and marijuana use (Banks & Zapolski, 2018; Chen & Jacobson, 2012). However, as individuals reach mature adulthood (i.e., mid-30 s-50), African Americans report similar or higher rates of drug use and often experience greater rates of drug-related morbidity and mortality (CDC, 2013; Kandel et al, 2016; Watt, 2008; Zapolski et al, 2017).…”