The Dynamic Changes of African Elephant Milk Composition over Lactation

Abstract

The combined data of milk composition of 14 African elephants over 25 months of lactation are presented. The milk density was constant during lactation. The total protein content increased with progressing lactation, with caseins as the predominant protein fraction. The total carbohydrates steadily decreased, with the oligosaccharides becoming the major fraction. Lactose and isoglobotriose reached equal levels at mid lactation. The milk fat content increased during lactation, as did the caprylic and capric acids, while the 12 carbon and longer fatty acids decreased. The fatty acid composition of the milk phospholipids fluctuated, and their total saturated fatty acid composition was low compared to the triacylglycerides. The milk ash and content of the major minerals, Na, K, Mg, P, and Ca, increased. Vitamin content was low, Vitamin E occurred in quantifiable amounts, with traces of vitamins A, D3, and K. The energy levels of African elephant milk did not change much in the first ten months of lactation, but they increased thereafter due to the increase in protein and fat content. The overall changes in milk composition appeared to be in two stages: (a) strong changes up to approximately 12 months of lactation and (b) little or no changes thereafter.

Varying Levels of Medium‐Chain Fatty Acids Affect Triacylglycerol Composition and Crystallization Behavior of African Elephant Milk Fat

“…The influence of lactation stage on EMF reported here agrees with the observations for EMF described in a recent study [ 13 ] and with the effects reported for other mammals. Earlier studies showed a significant effect of lactation stage on bovine MF composition.…”

“…A detailed description of the effect of lactation stage on macro‐ and micronutrients, and fat composition in specific, of elephant milk can be found elsewhere. [ 13 ] Here, we focus on the effect of substantial FA changes in EMF TAG and crystallization.…”

“…More information about the care of the elephant was described in a previous study. [ 13 ] Around 20–50 mL of milk were collected by hand at various intervals over lactation. Milk samples were stored frozen and kept at −23 °C during transportation.…”

Macronutrient composition of milk from two captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cows

“…The increases in fat and crude protein content and decreases in sugar content found in this study (Table 3; Figure 1) are consistent with other published studies on African elephant milk (Table 2, Kobeni et al, 2020; McCullagh & Widdowson, 1970; Osthoff et al, 2005, 2007). The mean values for fat, protein and sugar from the previous zoo elephant studied during early lactation (Parrot, 1996) are consistent with the early lactation values from our study, providing further evidence that elephant milk increases in nutrient density over lactation.…”

“…The most recent published data from free‐ranging elephants in Africa (Kobeni et al, 2020) found the same consistent changes in milk composition across lactation as this study, with fat and protein increasing and sugar decreasing. Thus, both captive North American African elephants and free‐ranging elephants in Africa display the same pattern of increasing milk nutrient density over lactation, strongly suggesting that these patterns are fixed and relatively unaffected by external factors such as diet.…”