The Economic Cost of Homosexuality: Multilevel Analyses

Identity Management: Worker Independence and Discrimination Against Gay Men

“…Indeed, investigations into the gay earnings penalty using decomposition techniques show that the penalty cannot be explained by differences in observed characteristics (Antecol, Jong, and Steinberger ; Berg and Lien ; Martell 2013a). Differences in earnings that cannot be explained by differences in characteristics are generally attributed to discrimination, a finding that is consistent with work showing that laws making sexual orientation discrimination illegal cause the gay earnings penalty to shrink and the labor supply of gay men to increase (Baumle and Poston ; Klawitter ; Martell 2013b, 2014). While the effectiveness of antidiscrimination laws provides strong evidence that discrimination may be the source of the gay earnings penalty, researchers must reconcile the theoretical assumptions of standard models of discrimination with the relative invisibility of sexual orientation.…”

“…The estimates of earnings differentials are slightly smaller than previous estimates. For instance, Baumle and Poston () found an earnings differential of 12.5% for gay men using 2000 Census data. That the estimated earnings differential is smaller here is consistent with Cushing‐Daniels and Yeung () and Klawitter () who find that the earnings differentials for gay men have been decreasing.…”

A Population‐Based Study of Alcohol Use in Same‐Sex and Different‐Sex Unions

“…Some empirical evidence supports this view. Relative to their respective different‐sex married and cohabiting counterparts, individuals in same‐sex legal (e.g., civil unions) and non‐legal cohabiting unions appear to experience less social and familial integration and involvement (Kurdek, ), less relationship investment and longevity (Solomon et al, , although see Wight et al, ), higher rates of divorce or dissolution (Andersson, Noack, Seierstad, & Weedon‐Fekjaer, ; Kalmijn, Loeve, & Manting, ; C. Q. Lau, ), and overall socioeconomic disadvantage (Badgett, , ; Baumle & Poston, ; Black et al, ; see Carpenter, , and Clarke & Sevak, , for evidence of same‐sex advantage on educational attainment and full‐time worker status). Minority stress, as an experience unique to sexual minorities, ostensibly adds a key dimension of disadvantage that heterosexuals do not experience.…”

HOW ENDAs EXTEND THE WORKWEEK: LEGAL PROTECTION AND THE LABOR SUPPLY OF BEHAVIORALLY GAY MEN

“…I investigate the impact of ENDAs on labor supplies because discrimination and prejudicial treatment are likely to affect the behavior of gay workers in addition to the treatment they experience on the job. While some work has shown that ENDAs decrease wage differentials experienced by behaviorally gay men (Baumle and Poston 2011; Gates 2009; Klawitter 2011; Martell 2013b), there is only one scholarly inquiry that shows that behaviorally gay men work more in states with ENDAs (Klawitter 2011). However, this finding is only representative of cohabiting behaviorally gay men.…”