Abstract-Both stimulatory and suppressive responses of the sympathetic nervous system to angiotensin II (AII) Key Words: sympathetic nervous system Ⅲ angiotensin II Ⅲ calcium Ⅲ calcium channel blockers Ⅲ norepinephrine Ⅲ inositol T he renin-angiotensin and sympathetic nervous systems are homeostatically interconnected by a complex series of mutually reinforcing and mutually inhibiting interactions. In general, each of these systems tends to reinforce the pressor effects of the other as the two systems act to defend arterial pressure. Sympathetic stimulation is a major controller of juxtaglomerular cell renin release through the actions of catecholamines on juxtaglomerular cell  1 receptors. 1 The angiotensin II (AII) subsequently generated in the bloodstream can exert positive feedback on sympathetic nervous activity by several complex mechanisms, including direct stimulatory actions of AII on central and peripheral sympathetic neuronal activity and catecholamine release. [1][2][3] In addition to its stimulatory effects, AII can also suppress sympathetic neuronal activity in vivo. In animals and humans, complex reflex inhibition occurs when increases in arterial pressure stimulate arterial baroreflexes to cause reflex suppression of sympathetic nervous outflow. A more confusing picture emerges in whole-animal experiments designed to isolate the contributions of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system: AII infusion can facilitate, 4 suppress, 5 or have no effect 6 on norepinephrine release from postganglionic sympathetic neurons. In humans, a similar pattern of sympathetic neural responses has been reported, with some studies showing increased norepinephrine spillover 3 and others showing no response 7 or decreased norepinephrine release 3,7,8 in response to AII. In other excitable cell types such as cardiomyocytes or vascular smooth muscle cells, a paradoxical response has also been reported. AII treatment was shown to increase cytosolic calcium ([Ca 2ϩ ]i) by stimulation of IP 3 -dependent pathways 9,10 and was also reported to decrease [Ca 2ϩ ]i through enhanced calcium efflux. 11,12 The current studies were undertaken to examine the effects of AII on neuronal [Ca 2ϩ ]i and to investigate whether alterations in [Ca 2ϩ ]i play a role in the apparent "bidirectional" excitatory and suppressive responses to AII seen in sympathetic neurons studied in vivo. Using isolated primary sympathetic neurons from rats, we first related neuronal responses to the dose of AII and to the baseline [Ca 2ϩ ]i. To confirm that the same neuron is capable of both stimulatory and suppressive responses to AII, cells with spontaneously low [Ca 2ϩ ]i were exposed to a Ca 2ϩ ionophore and cells with spontaneously high [Ca 2ϩ ]i were exposed to nifedipine. We used losartan to investigate the role of the AT 1 receptors and confirmed IP 3 pathway dependency with an IP 3 receptor blocker and by prior