The ethics of the Three Rs principle: a reconsideration

Abstract

In the past decades the Three Rs concept, famously launched by Russell and Burch in their 1959 book The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique, has gained a prominent place in the landscape of societal and ethical concern about animal use. Important scientific and institutional initiatives have been taken in order to promote replacement, reduction and refinement. It appears, however, that conceptual and ethical thinking about the presuppositions and changing contexts of the Three Rs concept has lagged behind the scientific and practical efforts. In this paper, first, I argue that there is a threefold argument to make for the need to reconsider the moral basis of the Three Rs concept. Second, I outline a number of standard assumptions of the traditional approach to the Three Rs and question the tenability of these assumptions. Third, I propose some elements of a new framework for the Three Rs principle and connect this to a number of developments in science and society. I conclude with four remarks on the future of the ethics of the Three Rs principle.

Animal Models in Neuroscience: What Is the “Culture of Care”?

“…Can valuable insights be derived from robust meta-analyses, probabilistic computational tools, or NAMs [41]? However, it is crucial to acknowledge that scientific inquiry frequently demands exploration beyond cellular or molecular levels, necessitating more intricate investigations [38][39][40][41][42]. When the trajectory of research mandates animal experimentation, the paramount concern for the researcher becomes prioritizing the welfare of these subjects [38][39][40][41][42].…”

“…However, it is crucial to acknowledge that scientific inquiry frequently demands exploration beyond cellular or molecular levels, necessitating more intricate investigations [38][39][40][41][42]. When the trajectory of research mandates animal experimentation, the paramount concern for the researcher becomes prioritizing the welfare of these subjects [38][39][40][41][42]. By emphasizing the well-being of AMs, researchers reduce confounding factors such as stress-induced responses that might skew experimental outcomes [38][39][40][41][42][43].…”

“…When the trajectory of research mandates animal experimentation, the paramount concern for the researcher becomes prioritizing the welfare of these subjects [38][39][40][41][42]. By emphasizing the well-being of AMs, researchers reduce confounding factors such as stress-induced responses that might skew experimental outcomes [38][39][40][41][42][43]. Moreover, ethical research practices often contribute to better animal health, reducing variables that might interfere with neurological studies [37,42].…”

“…By emphasizing the well-being of AMs, researchers reduce confounding factors such as stress-induced responses that might skew experimental outcomes [38][39][40][41][42][43]. Moreover, ethical research practices often contribute to better animal health, reducing variables that might interfere with neurological studies [37,42]. Adopting pathocentrism does not necessarily hinder scientific progress; instead, it encourages researchers to refine methodologies, explore alternative approaches, and create enriched environments for AMs [37,42].…”

“…Moreover, ethical research practices often contribute to better animal health, reducing variables that might interfere with neurological studies [37,42]. Adopting pathocentrism does not necessarily hinder scientific progress; instead, it encourages researchers to refine methodologies, explore alternative approaches, and create enriched environments for AMs [37,42]. Pathocentrism and the culture of care shape the ethical landscape of using AMs in scientific research [44,45].…”