The Illicit Antiquities Trade as a Transnational Criminal Network: Characterizing and Anticipating Trafficking of Cultural Heritage

Abstract

The illicit antiquities trade is composed of a diverse population of participants that gives the appearance of complexity; however, using the network paradigm, a simple underlying structure is revealed based on specific geographical, economic, political, and cultural rules. This article uses a wide range of source material to chart interactions from source to market using a criminal network approach. Interchangeable participants are connected through single interactions to form loosely based networks. These flexible network structures explain the variability observed within the trade, as well as provide the basis behind ongoing debates about the roles of organized crime, terrorism, and the Internet in antiquities trafficking. Finally, a network understanding of trade's organization allows for anticipation, though not necessarily prediction, of antiquities trafficking and offers the opportunity to develop new strategies for combating the trade.

Remote assessments of the archaeological heritage situation in Afghanistan

“…This has created situations in which the looting and sale of archaeological objects are typically easy and profitable. Pakistan is the exit point for most looted objects [5], some of which seem to be trafficked through refugee camps [56]. International aid for heritage programs has improved some aspects of Afghanistan's heritage crisis since 2001.…”

“…Satellite images of systematically looted sites in Syria like Dura Europos, Mari, and Apamea, as well as art market data and other forms of evidence indicate a thriving illegal trade in stolen antiquities [2][3][4]. Parallels have been drawn between the situation in Afghanistan and that in Syria and Iraq, with both providing examples of similarly organized looting as a possible funding source for Islamic terror groups [5]. The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas and other sites in Afghanistan by the Taliban in 2001 provides very direct foreshadowing of the actions more recently taken by the Islamic State [e.g., 6: 1, 7: 229].…”

Heritage and Conflict Situations

“…The resulting loss of scientific documentation irrevocably disrupts the context that binds the sites and the artefacts. Illicit trafficking of cultural property has therefore become a major transnational issue, and in the worst cases it has been used as a means of funding criminal and military operations (Bauer , Campbell ) . Developing countries with antiquities and cultural property in profusion are more likely to be targets of illegal looting and trafficking of antiquities, as for instance, Syria (UNESCO ) and Iraq (UNESCO ).…”

“…The issue of ‘subsistence digging’ is often mentioned in countries like Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, but also in Latin American countries for example. One author states that a large portion of such digging in Iraq is attributable to the high unemployment rate in the country (Campbell ). There are ongoing debates over the ranking of priorities in such countries, and heritage professionals face the dilemma of needing to consider other more ‘vital’ issues such as human lives when seeking to protect heritage, or the issue of archaeologists collaborating with military forces in doing so (Stone ; Bauer ).…”

Ancient Artifacts vs. Digital Artifacts: New Tools for Unmasking the Sale of Illicit Antiquities on the Dark Web

“…While other transnational criminal groups, such as the Haqqani network in Pakistan (Campbell 2013), and even Italian mafia (Quirico 2016) have been identified as agents of art and antiquities trafficking, the highly advanced technological maneuvering of ISIS's overall operations has placed them in a new level of threats in the digital realm. The group has sustained their operations through recruitment, extortion, and trafficking of antiquities and more on social networking outlets such as Facebook, Twitter, Telegram, and WhatsApp (Taub 2015;Rawnsley et al 2017).…”