The Influence of Smoking and Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus on Periodontal Disease

Abstract

The periodontal health of smokers and non-smokers with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and non-smokers with periodontitis who were not suffering from a systemic disease was assessed. The investigation was carried out on 60 adult subjects. Levels of blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and immunoglobulins G, A and M were determined, together with the plaque index, gingival index, probing pocket depths and clinical attachment level. Periodontitis was more severe in smokers and non-smokers with NIDDM than non-smokers without NIDDM, and the periodontal condition (clinical attachment level, probing pocket depth and gingival bleeding) was better in non-smokers with NIDDM than smokers with NIDDM. The results suggest that diabetes and smoking are high-risk factors for periodontal disease.

The Relationship between Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Chronic Periodontitis

“…Although diabetes has been identified as an important risk factor for chronic periodontal disease,39,40 the interpretation of the results is complicated by a number of factors: small sample sizes, the absence of standard reporting of the type of diabetes, the lack of longitudinal studies and control groups, and the inadequate control of covariates such as age, duration of diabetes, and level of control of diabetes 41…”

The Association of Smoking and Diabetes With Periodontitis in a Korean Population

“…Smoking and diabetes have been identified as major risk factors for periodontal disease, and it has been suggested that the combined effects of smoking and diabetes may be particularly damaging to periodontal health 39‐42 . Among groups of healthy, non‐smoker/non‐diabetic periodontitis patients, smoker/non‐diabetic periodontitis patients, non‐smoker/diabetic periodontitis patients, upregulation of interleukin‐17‐expressing, interleukin‐15‐expressing, and Foxp3‐expressing cells and increased amounts of fibrosis were observed in gingival tissues of CP sites in patients with type 2 diabetes 43 .…”

Concentração e perfil genético da Cromogranina A e a sua correlação com os aspectos salivar, dental e status periodontal : um estudo transversal em portadores de diabetes mellitus tipo 2

“…These results are consistent with previous studies that evaluated the influence of smoking and type 2 DM on PD (Orbak et al, 2002;Syrjälä et al, 2003). It is known that periodontitis is more severe in patients with type 2 DM compared to nondiabetic patients and that the periodontal status is worse in smokers than in non-smokers (Orbak et al, 2002).…”