“…As Teng (2019) notes, theoretical discussions around LA are far from coherent, consistent or systematic. Many scholars use LA synonymously with autonomous learning (Kyu, 2018;Thanh, 2019;Yu, 2020;Zaidi et al, 2020), learner independence (Kim & Yoon, 2021;Zaidi et al, 2020), independent learning, self-directed learning or self-direction (Al-Khawlani, 2018;Gulyamova & Kadirova, 2021;Hawkins, 2018), learner-centredness (Kyu, 2018;Yu, 2020), learner self-regulation (Hawkins, 2018;Oxana et al, 2020) and self-managed learning (Marsevani, 2021). It is a difficult and complex concept to define precisely (Gulyamova & Kadirova, 2021;Kim & Yoon, 2021;Sereti & Giossos, 2018;Teng, 2019), because of its broad and abstract nature (Oxana et al, 2020).…”