The intertwined history of non-human primate health and human medicine at the Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute

Abstract

In April 2020, the Bronx Zoo made a headline-grabbing announcement: one of their tigers tested positive for COVID-19, a striking example of zoos as microcosms of human health and medicine. Indeed, many diseases and health problems experienced by zoo animals are found in, and frequently linked to, humans. Furthermore, the veterinary care they receive often incorporates knowledge, tools and treatments used in human health care. Here, we analyse these developments across the history of non-human primate health at the Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (NZP), one of the oldest zoos in the United States. From NZP's opening in 1891, we distinguish five historical time periods within its first century based on how animal health was described, treated and understood. Concentrating on descriptions of primates in annual Smithsonian reports, we see notable changes in NZP activities focused on housing and environment (1889–1900), disease diagnosis and prevention (1901–1916), human–animal connections (1917–1940), research and collaboration (1941–1973) and conservation (1974–1989). We relate these shifts to concurrent medical events and trends in the United States, and interpret NZP's history in a broader scientific and societal context leading to a ‘One Health’ approach to animal care and welfare today.

Investigating factors of metabolic bone disease in baboons (Papio spp.) using museum collections

“…A rich record of NZP documents from the NMNH collections databases and Smithsonian Institution Archives supports the cranial evidence. These records reveal malnutrition, inadequate veterinary care, and poor housing conditions though the mid‐20th century, all which may have contributed to the high prevalence in MBD (Gutierrez et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Just like with the shortcomings of diet, living conditions, and veterinary care in historically captive environments (Gutierrez et al, 2021 ), non‐captive baboons may experience the same nutritional deficiencies that lead to the development of MBD. It is likely that skin pigmentation and sunlight exposure are not the only factors in MBD development; dietary imbalances may be just as influential.…”

“…As enclosures shifted from restrictive cages to naturalistic designs, zoo veterinarians began to remedy the high prevalence and severity of MBD through dietary means such as vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus supplements, as well as UV light therapy to produce cutaneous vitamin D (Fiennes, 1974 ; Ratcliffe, 1966 ; Wackernagel, 1966 ). Since animal welfare legislation was enacted in the mid‐20th century (Hosey et al, 2009 ), and alongside greatly improved diets, habitats, and veterinary care practices (Fiennes, 1974 ; Gutierrez et al, 2021 ; Smithsonian Institution, 1942 , 1952 , 1957 ), MBDs have been greatly reduced in captive NHPs, save a few isolated cases (Hatt & Sainsbury, 1998 ; Morrisey et al, 1995 ; Wolfensohn, 2003 ).…”

Oxytocin administration is a potential tool for behavioral management in felids

“…The need for carnivore management is particularly acute in South Africa, where most wildlife reserves are fenced in order to mitigate human-wildlife conflict (Packer et al, 2013), and where there are roughly the same number of animals in captivity as in the wild (Thorn et al, 2012). In either situation, conservationists attempt to manage animal populations in ways that promote their natural behavior and ensure their positive welfare (Crooks et al, 2011;Gutierrez et al, 2021).…”

“…Carnivores show a wide spectrum of social systems (Kleiman and Eisenberg, 1973;MacDonald, 1983;Clutton-Brock, 2021). In the more social carnivores, such as the African lion (Panthera leo) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), social interactions are important for promoting health and wellbeing (Gutierrez et al, 2021), and social instability increases mortality (Fanshawe and Fitzgibbon, 1993;Carbone et al, 2005;Hunter et al, 2007). Even tigers (Panthera tigris), a naturally solitary species, show an increase in naturalistic behaviors and a decreased prevalence of stereotypic behaviors in captivity when housed with a companion (De Rouck et al, 2005;Vaz et al, 2017).…”