“…Researchers have conducted various studies to estimate the ultimate strength capacity of a single-loaded unstiffened and stiffened structure, i.e. longitudinal compression, by experimental (Chen et al, 2004;Faulkner, 1977;Gordo and Soares, 2008;Kim et al, 2021;Kong et al, 2020;Manuel Gordo and Guedes Soares, 2011;Paik et al, 2020;Shanmugam et al, 2014;Xu and Soares, 2012), numerical (Fujikubo et al, 2005;Georgiadis et al, 2021;Kim et al, 2022;Li et al, 2021b;Liu et al, 2020;Paik et al, 2008a, b, c;Paik et al, 2009;Paik and Seo, 2009a, b;Ringsberg et al, 2021), empirical (Li et al, 2021a)and analytical methods (Benson et al, 2015;Brubak et al, 2013;Chen, 2003;Li et al, 2019). In particular, Paik (2018), Yao and Fujikubo (2016a), Hughes and Paik (2010) provided well-established knowledge to understand the complex structural behaviour of ships and offshore structures in the ultimate limit state (ULS).…”