The Modes of Evolutionary Emergence of Primal and Late Pandemic Influenza Virus Strains from Viral Reservoir in Animals: An Interdisciplinary Analysis

Abstract

Based on a wealth of recent findings, in conjunction with earliest chronologies pertaining to evolutionary emergences of ancestral RNA viruses, ducks, Influenzavirus A (assumingly within ducks), and hominids, as well as to the initial domestication of mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and wild horse (Equus ferus), presumed genesis modes of primordial pandemic influenza strains have multidisciplinarily been configured. The virological fundamentality of domestication and farming of those various avian and mammalian species has thereby been demonstrated and broadly elucidated, within distinctive coevolutionary paradigms. The mentioned viral genesis modes were then analyzed, compatibly with common denominators and flexibility that mark the geographic profile of the last 18 pandemic strains, which reputedly emerged since 1510, the antigenic profile of the last 10 pandemic strains since 1847, and the genomic profile of the last 5 pandemic strains since 1918, until present. Related ecophylogenetic and biogeographic aspects have been enlightened, alongside with the crucial role of spatial virus gene dissemination by avian hosts. A fairly coherent picture of primary and late evolutionary and genomic courses of pandemic strains has thus been attained, tentatively. Specific patterns underlying complexes prone to generate past and future pandemic strains from viral reservoir in animals are consequentially derived.

Characteristics of human infection with avian influenza viruses and development of new antiviral agents

“…The unique genome of influenza virus H17N10 was recently discovered in bats in Guatemala [7] . One remarkable feature of influenza viruses is their inclination to undergo antigenic variation through antigenic drift and antigenic shift [8] . Antigenic drift consists of relatively minor mutational alterations in the antigenicity of HA or NA and occurs continuously as a result of selection pressure from host immunity [8] .…”

“…One remarkable feature of influenza viruses is their inclination to undergo antigenic variation through antigenic drift and antigenic shift [8] . Antigenic drift consists of relatively minor mutational alterations in the antigenicity of HA or NA and occurs continuously as a result of selection pressure from host immunity [8] . Antigenic shift by genetic reassortment of the eight gene segments can result in the appearance of a novel HA/NA combination against which the human population has little or no immunity [9] .…”

Whole genome characterization of human influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses isolated from Kenya during the 2009 pandemic

“…The 13.5-kb influenza A virus genome consists of eight segments, ranging from 890 to 2341 nucleotides (nt) in length, encoding up to 13 proteins (Vasin et al, 2014). A remarkable feature of influenza viruses is their inclination to undergo antigenic variation through antigenic drift and antigenic shift (Shoham, 2011). Antigenic drift consists of relatively minor mutational alterations in the antigenicity of the viral surface glycoproteins and occurs continuously as a result of selection pressure from host immunity (Shoham, 2011).…”

“…A remarkable feature of influenza viruses is their inclination to undergo antigenic variation through antigenic drift and antigenic shift (Shoham, 2011). Antigenic drift consists of relatively minor mutational alterations in the antigenicity of the viral surface glycoproteins and occurs continuously as a result of selection pressure from host immunity (Shoham, 2011). Antigenic shift on the other hand, occurs by genetic reassortment of the eight gene segments.…”

Genetic Analysis of Avian Influenza Viruses: Cocirculation of Avian Influenza Viruses with Allele A and B Nonstructural Gene in Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) Ducks Wintering in Japan

“…Therefore, detection and characterization of AIVs, especially those subtypes having the potential to transmit to mammals, including pigs and humans, are significant. Avian H7N7 and H3N8 strains are contracted and circulated by horses, as well, and an equine H3N8 virus apparently was involved in the formation of the pandemic H3N2 virus, and perhaps the H3N8 pandemic virus of 1889 [9]. …”