The Nature of Bias Crime Injuries: A Comparative Analysis of Physical and Psychological Victimization Effects

Abstract

The core justification of bias crime statutes concerns whether bias-motivated crimes are qualitatively different from otherwise motivated crimes. We test the hypothesis that bias crimes are more detrimental than non-bias crimes by testing for multi-dimensional injuries to victims of bias and non-bias-motivated criminal conduct. Using National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Extract 2013 Collection Year Incident-level Extract File, we analyzed physical injuries and psychological trauma to NCVS victims during 2013. We found a range of covariates consistent with the likelihood of physical injury and psychological trauma. These included whether the incident was bias motivated, whether weapons (firearms, knives, other or unknown type of weapons) were involved, whether the incident involved multiple offenders or strangers, or whether drugs or alcohol were involved. Our findings reinforce previous studies that detected empirical evidence of multi-dimensional physical and psychological injuries to bias crime victims.

Unique Characteristics of Bias Crimes Committed by Males or Females in the United States

“…These injuries are often related to the presence of weapons (Harlow, 2005;Strom, 2001), although reports of weapons use and rates of injuries have varied when examining different years and different data sources (Wilson, 2014). Bias crimes have been determined to be particularly heinous even in relatively "minor" crimes such as vandalism because of the increased levels of negative health and mental health outcomes for victims that are long-lasting, and that these crimes also have negative impacts to victims' communities that extend beyond non-bias crimes (Cogan, 2002;Fetzer & Pezzella, 2019). Scholars have noted that these differences are typically a matter of degree, rather than the presence or absence of a characteristic.…”

Hate Crimes Hurt More, but so Do Co-Offenders: Separating the Influence of Co-Offending and Bias on Hate-Motivated Physical Injury

“…Finally, hate-motivated violence may hurt more by exacerbating the physical consequences of victimization (Levin, 1999). Supporting this argument, a number of studies have demonstrated that, along with other serious consequences (e.g., psychological harms, harmful effects to the community), hate crime injuries are qualitatively more severe than other hate crimes (Fetzer & Pezzella, 2016; Iganski, 2001; Levin, 1999; Levin & McDevitt, 1993; Messner, McHugh, & Felson, 2004; Perry, 2012; Strom, 2001; Weisburd & Levin, 1993). Levin (1999), for example, noted that hate crime incidents were twice as likely as other crimes to result in injury to the victim and 4 times more likely than other incidents to require victim hospitalization.…”

“…Indeed, the primary argument for hate crime legislation is that the increased harm associated with hate crime is worthy of increased punishment. A number of studies have supported these arguments regarding physical harm (Fetzer & Pezzella, 2016; Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 1999; Herek, Gillis, Cogan, & Glunt, 1997; Iganski, 2001; McDevitt, Balboni, Garcia, & Gu, 2001; Perry, 2001). Importantly, however, a number of scholars have also noted that hate crimes are significantly more likely than other crimes to involve the participation of multiple offenders or co-offending (e.g., Dunbar, 1999; Levin, 1999).…”

Racial Animosity, Adversary Effect, and Hate Crime: Parsing Out Injuries in Intraracial, Interracial, and Race-Based Offenses

“…Despite the differences between data with regard to relative risk, many studies, regardless of data source, find that bias crimes are associated with more injurious outcomes for victims (Fetzer & Pezzella, 2016; Harlow, 2005; B. Levin, 1999; J.…”