The new patterns of nephrolithiasis: What has been changing in the last millennium?

Abstract

Nephrolithiasis has been increasing over the last millennium. Although early epidemiologic studies have shown that kidney stones were two to three times more frequent in males than in females, recent reports have suggested that this rate is decreasing. In parallel a dramatic increase of nephrolithiasis has also been observed among children and adolescents. Furthermore, epidemiologic studies have shown a strong association between metabolic syndrome (Mets) traits and kidney stone disease. Patients with hypertension have a higher risk of stone formation and stone formers are predisposed to develop hypertension compared to the general population. An incidence of nephrolithiasis greater than 75% has been shown in overweight and obese patients compared to those of normal weight. It has also been reported that a previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus increases the risk of future nephrolithiasis. Additionally, an association between metabolic syndrome and uric acid stone formation has been clearly recognized. Furthermore, 24-h urinary metabolic abnormalities have been decreasing among patients with nephrolithiasis over the last decades. Finally, nephrolithiasis could cause chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end stage renal disease (ESRD), especially in women and overweight patients. According to these observations, a better understanding of these new features among stone former patients may be required. Hence, the recognition and the correction of metabolic disorders could help not only to reduce the primary disease, but also stone recurrence.

Associations between lumbar bone mineral density, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and history of kidney stones in adults aged 30–69 years in the USA (NHANES 2011–2018)

“…Nephrolithiasis is a common disease that is influenced by multiple factors. After entering the 21st century, the incidence rate of kidney stones showed a significant upward trend, and the male-to-female ratio of 3:1 narrowed 1 2. In a study of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2015 to 2018, the researchers found that the 12-month incidence of kidney stones was significantly higher than that stated in previous reports from the USA.…”

Pathophysiology and Main Molecular Mechanisms of Urinary Stone Formation and Recurrence

“…However, such events have also been described in non-stone formers [ 9 ], validating a multifactorial etiology hypothesis [ 10 ]. Recent studies suggest that nephrolithiasis should be regarded as a systemic disease due to the interaction of multiple risk factors [ 5 ].…”

“…The prevalence of kidney stone disease is generally higher in males than females [ 4 ]. However, nephrolithiasis is becoming more and more common in women than men causing a reduction of the male to female ratio [ 5 ] as proved by the increasing number of annual visits for urinary stones in women at emergency departments [ 6 ].…”

“…Nephrolithiasis has an important economic burden on healthcare systems, with a positive outlook expected in the future due to the increasing incidence [ 5 ].…”

Risk factors for nephrolithiasis after radical cystectomy with intestinal plasty of the bladder.

“…), особенности диеты (обильное потребление животных белков и соли, гипогидратация) и др. Вместе с тем, многие патогенетические аспекты вероятности возникновения злокачественных новообразований у пациентов с МКБ в анамнезе, отражены лишь фрагментарно и требуют дальнейшего изучения [6][7][8][9].…”