The Politics of Bilingual Education and Educational Levels in Ethnic Minority Communities in China

Mother tongue and bilingual minority education in China

“…According to many researchers, minority education policy in China has always been underpinned by pragmatism. In MarxistÁLeninist thinking ethnic groups are seen as vestiges of capitalism and would integrate into a unified community under communism; the pace at which this evolution is seen to occur had varied at different times in China's minority policy (Dreyer 1976;Mackerras 1994;Zhou 2001). Minority and bilingual education policies vary region by region, with the term 'bilingual' often being equated with the use of Putonghua to teach some subjects, what could be called immersion in some instances (Tsung 1999).…”

“…Although some groups, such as the Koreans, have a higher percentage of college-educated people and generally higher educational outcomes than the majority Han population, most minority groups have lower educational experiences and outcomes, in terms of college-educated and secondary education. Of the 55 minority groups, 40 have lower than average percentages of college-educated and 43 have lower than average percentages with secondary education (Zhou 2001). Of the large minority groups, Uyghur and Tibetans have much lower educational outcomes.…”

Bilingualism for the Minor or the Major? An Evaluative Analysis of Parallel Conceptions in China

“…2. There are five minority groups, namely the Korean, Mongolian, Tibetan, Kazak and Uygur, that have their own writing systems in active use and a relatively complete bilingual minority education system from primary up to tertiary levels (Qumutiexi, 1998;Zhou, 2001). This makes possible a heritage model with an emphasis on the home language of the students.…”

“…2 The bilingual schooling practised in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in north-eastern China, for example, is widely reported as the most effective (Lin, 1997;Zhou, 2001). Nevertheless, in most other regions, insufficient societal effort in developing learning and teaching materials for minority students and teachers, limited job opportunities locally and the difficulties minority graduates face in the larger job market often hamper the development of strong forms of bilingual education.…”

“…Since then tremendous efforts have been made in minority regions in terms of language policy, indigenous language research and revival and bilingual schooling (Dai & Dong, 1997). In the last couple of decades, survey findings and statistical data evaluating the effectiveness of bilingual education in various minority regions have rapidly increased (Guan, 1995;He, 1998;Ouyang & Zhou, 1994;Zhongguo Shaosu Minzu Shuangyu Jiaoxue Yanjiuhui, 2002;Zhou, 2000Zhou, , 2001. A review of the literature reveals that while accomplishments in terms of policy, teaching methodology, textbook publication, and teacher training and levels of literacy are evident, particularly in statistical terms, there are still many challenges and barriers in bilingual schooling and research.…”