The primate extinction crisis in China: immediate challenges and a way forward

Distinguished primatologist address—moving from advocacy to activism: Changing views of primate field research and conservation over the past 40 years

“…In the case of the Critically Endangered Hainan gibbon ( Nomascus hainanus ), the rapid economic development of Hainan Island, China in the 1970s resulted in the near extinction of this species, with only 10 individuals remaining in the wild. In response to conservation efforts by Chinese scientists and the Chinese government, the population has now increased to 26 individuals, however, the remaining area of continuous primary forest available to the Hainan gibbon is only 1,600 ha (Li et al, ). Similarly, three decades of field research, conservation action, and public awareness by Karen Strier and Brazilian colleagues has resulted in an increase in the critically endangered northern muriqui ( Brachyteles hypoxanthus ) population from an estimated 855 individuals in 2008 (Mendes, de Oliveira, Mittermeier, & Rylands, ) to some 1,200 in 2016 (Strier & Mendes, ).…”

“…Clearly, the main driver of primate population decline has been an expanding human population, which was 2.5 billion in 1950 and is projected to total 11–12 billion people by the end of the century (Samir & Lutz, ). This is expected to intensify the already environmentally unsustainable demands to feed, house, and provide energy, clean water, goods and services, and transportation networks for an ever‐expanding urban population (estimated to include 68% of all humans by 2050; UN Demographic Yearbook, ; United Nations Department of Economic & Social Affairs, ), resulting in the continued conversion of natural forests into monocultures, pastures for cattle, mines for the extraction of minerals, metals, and precious gems, and habitat degradation from land‐based fossil fuel exploration and dam building (Estrada, Garber, & Chaudhary, ; Henders, Persson, & Kastner, ; Li et al, ). In Central Africa, for example, a region of high primate biodiversity, the number of roads inside logging concessions has doubled in the past 15 years facilitating access into areas of previously intact forests, causing deforestation, habitat fragmentation, colonization, and increased bushmeat hunting (Estrada et al, ; Kleinschroth, Laporte, Laurance, Goetz, & Ghazoul, ).…”

“…Globally, between 100 and 134 primate taxa (species and subspecies) are susceptible to the effects of cyclones and/or droughts, with populations inhabiting Madagascar, Southeast Asia, and West Africa, the most heavily impacted (Zhang et al, ). Moreover, several vulnerable primate species are distributed in small subpopulations that are discontiguous or geographically isolated from conspecific subpopulations (Li et al, ). The effective size (N e ) of many of these subpopulations is below that estimated to sustain a viable breeding population (Strier, ).…”

Expanding global commodities trade and consumption place the world’s primates at risk of extinction

“…Thus, the environmental costs of production have been disproportionately borne by exporting nations, and both exporting and importing countries have become ever more dependent on external and distant resources to satisfy their food and natural resource security needs (Fader et al, 2011(Fader et al, , 2013MacDonald et al, 2015). Global market demands for forest-risk commodities (e.g., soybeans, palm oil, hardwoods, and other commodities that contribute significantly to the conversion of biodiverse forests into monocultures or highly degraded habitats) have resulted in a process of rapid and widespread industry-driven deforestation, negatively impacting tropical biodiversity, subdividing single large or continuous wild animal populations into small and isolated subpopulations, reducing habitat suitability and gene flow, and limiting the area available for species distribution and population persistence (Chaudhary & Brooks, 2018;Henders, Persson & Kastner, 2015;Henders et al, 2018;Wich et al, 2014;Estrada et al, 2017Estrada et al, , 2018Li et al, 2018). Today, commercial agriculture at local and global scales is the most significant driver of deforestation worldwide (Hosonuma et al, 2012).…”

Cafeteria‐style feeding trials provide new insights into the diet and nutritional strategies of the black snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri): Implications for conservation

“…China is home to 25 primate species, of which 80% are listed by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (Li et al, 2018). The primate extinction crisis in China is a direct result of China's history of human expansion (currently totaling some 1.4 billion people), the rapid transformation of its natural landscape into agricultural fields, monocultures, pastures, mines, transportation networks, and vast urban centers, and an extraordinary period of economic growth over the past several decades (Li et al, 2018; Pan et al, 2016). Efforts to prevent China's impending primate extinction crisis will require an aggressive program of habitat restoration and protection, which includes the planting of native trees that provide a nutrient profile consistent with the nutritional requirements of China's remaining species of primates.…”