The production of anatomical teaching resources using three‐dimensional (3D) printing technology

Abstract

The teaching of anatomy has consistently been the subject of societal controversy, especially in the context of employing cadaveric materials in professional medical and allied health professional training. The reduction in dissection-based teaching in medical and allied health professional training programs has been in part due to the financial considerations involved in maintaining bequest programs, accessing human cadavers and concerns with health and safety considerations for students and staff exposed to formalin-containing embalming fluids. This report details how additive manufacturing or three-dimensional (3D) printing allows the creation of reproductions of prosected human cadaver and other anatomical specimens that obviates many of the above issues. These 3D prints are high resolution, accurate color reproductions of prosections based on data acquired by surface scanning or CT imaging. The application of 3D printing to produce models of negative spaces, contrast CT radiographic data using segmentation software is illustrated. The accuracy of printed specimens is compared with original specimens. This alternative approach to producing anatomically accurate reproductions offers many advantages over plastination as it allows rapid production of multiple copies of any dissected specimen, at any size scale and should be suitable for any teaching facility in any country, thereby avoiding some of the cultural and ethical issues associated with cadaver specimens either in an embalmed or plastinated form.

Rapid Prototyping: An Educational Extension of Anatomy Coloring Textbooks

“…Each structure on the model represents accurately the absolute and relative sizes and shapes of the cadaveric equivalents. Ultimately, since this technology offers the potential of rapid production of multiple copies of any anatomical structure, this approach can ensure the standardization in teaching, which study on prosecutions cannot offer [43]. In addition, unlike plastic models which are commonly used in high schools despite their "hypothetical" and "caricatured" nature, the 3D printed models offer great accuracy and great level of details.…”

Body donation and digital technology: the ethical issues

“…The guidelines on body donation from the International Federation of Association of Anatomists (IFAA) are silent on the specific issue of digital information, [9] however they do clearly state that there should be no commercialisation in relation to bequests of human remains. This statement has already been challenged ethically, if not legally, with 3D printed models from donated cadavers already being created [1] and made commercially available. In addition, textbook images and some educational software programmes utilise images from bodies donated to science, and it is unclear how this has been addressed in relation to informed consent and possible downstream generation of revenue.…”

“…Given the widespread use of digital technology across higher education institutions, it is highly likely that such technology will eventually impact upon body donation programmes. In fact, evidence of such impact has already been seen in the uptake of 3-D printing [1] and exome analysis [2] of bodies that have been donated to science. As the use of digital technology becomes more common, it is perhaps pertinent to ask -how will digital technology impact upon body donation, and how can higher education institutions responsibly address this topic?…”

Student Perceptions to Teaching Undergraduate Anatomy in Health Sciences

“…However, with the emergence of 3D printing capabilities, computer modeling has been utilized to produce anatomically accurate specimens (McMenamin, Quayle, McHenry, & Adams, 2014). More economical options include the use of plasticine and body painting.…”