The (re)-emergence of civil society in areas of state weakness: the case of education in Burma/Myanmar

Abstract

Civil society in the context of authoritarianism and state weakness: some theoretical reflections Civil society under authoritarian ruleAccording to normative definitions, the sphere of civil society is characterised by its extensive autonomy from the State and the market, and by voluntary participation, tolerance, discursive procedures of decision making and horizontal networks. Correspondingly, it is assumed to generate trust and democratic values and to consequently promote democracy. 7 In order to identify and understand civil-society developments in authoritarian Burma/Myanmar, such normatively highly loaded concepts are not very useful. Compared with the theoretical ideal type, Burma/Myanmar's civil society is still embryonic in nature (Lorch 2006). This study therefore relies on a broad, empirical definition of the term:Civil society refers to the arena of uncoerced collective action around shared interests, purposes and values. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family and market, though in practice, the boundaries between state, civil society, family and market are often complex, blurred and negotiated. Civil society commonly embraces a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in their degree of formality, autonomy and power. Civil societies are often populated by organisations such as registered charities, development non-governmental organisations, community groups, women's organisations, faith-based organisations, professional associations, trades unions, self-help groups, social movements, business associations, coalitions and advocacy groups.

Human Rights Protection in Global Politics

“…However, the more the economic hardship, the less people will be able to donate to the monks. This was the situation that preceded the large-scale demonstrations in September 2007, in which Buddhist monks played a prominent role (Lorch 2008). Thus, although Buddhist monks are not explicit duty holders in the international human rights system and have no formal responsibilities according to this framework, they have for centuries played an important role in the provision of social services such as education.…”

“…In fact, estimated per capita Official Development Assistance (ODA) to Myanmar in recent decades ranked among the lowest in the world (U Myint 2006). It must be noted that this is not only the result of donor wariness, but also of the government's distrust of foreign involvement in its education system (Lorch 2008). Nevertheless, over the years some international donor organizations (both governmental and nongovernmental) have become involved in Myanmar's education sector, not only out of a sense of obligation, but also with the expectation that it would contribute to development and democratization of the country (cf.…”

Learning English in the periphery: A view from Myanmar (Burma)

“…The present study explores the English learning experiences of a group of Burmese students majoring in English at a private Christian seminary for Karens. According to Lorch (2008), there are several Christian seminaries in Myanmar, offering Christian education at a tertiary level. Although their main mission is to teach bible studies, several secular subjects such as English, Business and Computer Science are also taught.…”

“…In recent years, Lorch (2008) notes an increasing number of civil-society initiatives in the education sector, most operating under religious or ethnic umbrellas such as Christian institutions, Buddhist monasteries, ethnic communities and non-government organizations (NGOs). However, as Lall (2008) notes, private education is not formally recognized by the government and does not operate officially as an alternative to the state education system.…”

“…Many private schools operate in Yangon, offering English classes at various levels. As Lorch (2008) comments, the English curriculum in private schools varies and there is no quality control over standards and teaching methods. The ELT boom in Myanmar was influenced by the changing socio-economic, political landscape in the country as well as by the increasing global status of English as a language of power, enabling access to what Norton (1997) calls 'symbolic and material resources'.…”