The role of learning in shark behaviour

Abstract

Introduction 451Learning terminology and early shark experiments 451Associative learning 452Non-associative learning 453Is there any evidence to suggest that sharks can use learning in natural situations? 453Migration, navigation and orientation 453Foraging 456 Social interactions 458Conspecifics/heterospecifics 458 AbstractThe role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals. However, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered. Almost 50 years ago the first learning experiments on sharks were conducted; our first section discusses these studies and places them in a framework of associative and non-associative learning. These experiments showed that sharks were capable of different forms of learning, such as operant and classical conditioning and habituation. Sharks could learn associations as rapidly as other vertebrates and also remember training regimes for several months. However, much of this experimental evidence was based on small sample sizes and few shark orders, such as Carcharhiniformes and Orectobliformes, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the general learning capabilities of other shark orders. We also examine recent research that has tested for, or inferred learning in behavioural processes. This section reveals that sharks, like teleost fishes use learning to improve prey search and capture to potentially navigate and orientate in their home range and recognize conspecifics, heterospecifics and mates. Learning is also discussed in relation to ecotourism and fisheries. Findings indicated that these activities may lead to conditioning of sharks and that considerable effort should go into investigating what impact this could have on the shark species involved. Finally, we discuss the importance of combining laboratory experiments with field studies, the use of new experimental techniques, the role of model species and research priorities for future work.

Assortative interactions and leadership in a free-ranging population of juvenile lemon shark Negaprion brevirostris

“…A series of binary choice experiments conducted with juvenile lemon sharks at the study site also found similar results, with smaller individuals (aged 0 to 1 yr) spending more time near a compartment with larger (aged 2 to 3 yr) sharks than size-matched conspecifics (Guttridge et al 2009a). We hypothesise that smaller sharks are willing to follow larger (older) individuals because the latter have accumulated more information about the habitat, predators and local prey (Guttridge et al 2009b). Associating with these larger individuals could facilitate the transfer of this information.…”

“…For teleost fishes this phenomenon is well studied (Griffiths 2003) and recent evidence has indicated that social recognition is a complex subject with species and populations capable of different levels of recognition (Ward et al 2009). As far as we are aware, this phenomenon has not been explored in sharks (Guttridge et al 2009b) and warrants investigation in the context of behavioural processes, such as foraging, navigation and reproduction.…”

Determining the Role of Hand Feeding Practices in Accidental Shark Bites on Scuba Divers

“…However where rewards are made readily available and there is a definite learning effect, greater risks of altering behaviour of target animals are likely to occur [22]. During the implementation of hand-feeding, the sharks easily identify the end of the arms (the hands) as a potential source of food.…”

The organicity of science

“…For the sharks' ability to make associations and behave accordingly, to learn, memorize, use tools, and for the ability of young sharks to use socially-acquired information about new elements in the environment, see Guttridge et al (2009;, Guttridge & Brown (2014), Schluessel (2015. 36 The syntheses seldomly belong to field researchers, though when that happens they are, in general, more assertive.…”