The role of oxidative stress in menopause

Abstract

This review will discuss the concept of reproductive aging, which includes the definition of menopause, its symptoms, and predisposing conditions. It will elaborate upon the contributory factors implicated in the pathogenesis of menopause, focusing most prominently on oxidative stress. Specifically, this paper will explain how oxidative stress, in the form of free radicals and antioxidant deficiencies, has been directly linked to the decline of estrogen during reproductive aging. Additionally, this paper will elaborate upon the treatment options aimed at mitigating the menopausal symptoms and hormonal deficiencies that can lead to various disease processes. Treatment options such as hormonal therapy, antioxidant supplementation, and lifestyle modification have been explored for their effectiveness in treating and preventing the symptoms and sequelae of menopause. The majority of information in this review was obtained through PubMed and the National Library of Medicine. While most references in this paper are original research articles, a limited number of references are comprehensive reviews on the topic.

Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity

“…The net result of this coordinated action of LH and FSH on thecal and granulosa cells of the ovary gives rise to increases in circulating estradiol and supports the two cell – two gonadotropin hypothesis (Stocco, 2001). While estrogens are made by the conversion of androstenedione into estradiol in ovarian granulosa cells, these cells lack the enzymes required to directly metabolize progesterone into the androgenic precursors of estrogens (Doshi & Agarwal, 2013) and must depend on the-cal cells to provide estrogenic precursors. At mid-cycle, elevated LH levels not only are responsible for ovulation, but also drive the luteinization of the follicle and the development of the corpus luteum.…”

Effect of Nigella Sativa on Oxidative Stress in Post-Menopausal Females

“…4 The increased oxidative stress in postmenopausal females results in heart diseases, vasomotor disturbances and osteoporosis. 5 At present, medicinal plants are used for treatment and prevention of many diseases due to easy availability, affordability and safety . 6 Among different medicinal herbs, Nigella sativa (Kalonji) is one miraculous herb…”

MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Nutrition as a mediator of oxidative stress in metabolic and reproductive disorders in women

“…Simultaneously, hormone replacement therapy is able to prevent and counteract such modifications by acting as regulators of key antioxidant gene expression (135,136). Consequently, this pro-oxidant state that characterizes postmenopausal women potentiates the metabolic and endothelial dysfunction that characterizes postmenopausal women (132,137).…”

“…Ovarian senescence affects many tissues and produces a variety of symptoms and signs. Loss of their main circulating estrogen, E2 leads to an abrupt reduction in metabolic rate, shift to increased central adiposity, dyslipidemia, progression of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, as well as adverse cardiovascular events (132).…”