The Role of Snacking in Energy Balance: a Biobehavioral Approach,

Abstract

Snacking is often presumed to contribute to obesity, but to date, studies have not demonstrated such a causal relationship, probably because a clear definition of snacking is still elusive. The usual one, i.e. any intake between traditional meals, has no physiological basis. Moreover, because some evidence suggests that frequent meals may prevent overweight, any confusion between snacks and meals may mask the deleterious effect of snacks on energy balance. Therefore, we developed a biobehavioral approach to assess whether objective criteria for eating a meal and snacking could be determined. Our main findings were that regardless of the time of consumption or macronutrient composition, snacks exerted a weak satiety effect, with those higher in protein having the strongest. The energy content of snacks was never compensated for at the next meal and led consistently to a positive energy balance compared with no-snack conditions. Biologically, the snack-induced insulin secretion suppressed the late increase in plasma FFA, which may have contributed to the inhibition of satiety. Lastly, snacking was not preceded by the glucose and insulin profile observed prior to a spontaneously requested meal. In conclusion, further studies on the role of snacking in energy balance should include criteria other than nutrient composition or consumption between meals for defining these eating occasions as snacks.

Snacking between main meals is associated with a higher risk of metabolic syndrome in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN Project (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra)

“…Moreover, it has been proposed that snacks between main meals do not generate extra signals of satiety (30) . Thus, snacking may lead to a positive energy balance because it exerts a weaker satiety effect than consumption of the same foods during meals and its energy content is not compensated for at the next meal (10) . Overweight and obesity, especially abdominal obesity, are the result of a chronic positive energy balance (31) which is also related to other MetS individual criteria such as dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia and, consequently, hypertension (31,32) .…”

“…Snack consumption has recently been highlighted as one of these potential unhealthy eating habits (7)(8)(9) . The frequency of snack consumption is relatively high, especially among populations from Western countries (10) . Although there are some studies that have shown an association between snacking and obesity (7,(10)(11)(12) , the relationship of this eating habit with MetS is not well established.…”

“…The frequency of snack consumption is relatively high, especially among populations from Western countries (10) . Although there are some studies that have shown an association between snacking and obesity (7,(10)(11)(12) , the relationship of this eating habit with MetS is not well established. To the best of our knowledge, only three cross-sectional studies and one longitudinal study have explored this hypothesis so far.…”

Metabolic, endocrine and appetite-related responses to acute and daily milk snack consumption in healthy, adolescent males

“…Snacking is defined as an episode of food consumption occurring outside the context 35 of typical main meals, including all food and beverage items (Chapelot, 2011). Snack foods 36 are readily available in a variety of settings, including the school environment (Savige,37 Macfarlane, Ball, Worsley, & Crawford, 2007), and therefore snacking is highly prevalent, 38 particularly among children and adolescents.…”

“…Consequently, snacking contributes significantly 41 to daily energy and nutritional intake in young people (Ovaskainen et al, 2006), which is 42 potentially problematic and may lead to overconsumption of calories, free-sugars and 43 nutrient-poor, energy-dense foods. Indeed, while the health effects associated with such 44 dietary behaviours are well known (Chapelot, 2011) the promotion of more healthful snacks 45 could benefit overall dietary intake, nutritional status and actually act as a marker for 46 healthier eating habits. 47…”