The Roles of Protein Glycation, Glycoxidation, and Advanced Glycation End-Product Formation in Diabetes-Induced Atherosclerosis

Formation of nitri- and nitrosylhemoglobin in systems modeling the Maillard reaction

“…When carbonyl compounds react with guanidine, sulfhydril and amino groups of proteins ketamines, hemithioacetales and Schiff bases (alkylimines), respectively, are formed [17][18][19]. These reactions are the bases of non-enzymatic glycation (the Maillard reaction) [13,14,18,19,21,22]. After further transformations glycation end-products such as pentozydines, imidazole derivates, pyrimidines, pyrroles, N ε -carboxymethyl lysine etc.…”

“…Portion of glycated Hb (HbA 1c ) is the main marker of diabetes hyperglycemia [13,14,21]. Interaction of processes in oxidative and carbonyl stresses has been recently shown [13,[22][23][24][25].…”

“…Damage of cells and tissues as a result of accumulation of reactive carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) is referred to as "carbonyl stress" (by analogy with oxidative and nitrosative stresses) [12][13][14]. Modification of different biological macromolecules including Hb takes place in carbonyl stress conditions during diabetes hyperglycemia, atherosclerosis and some other diseases [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24].…”

“…One of the most important glycation agents is methylglyoxal (MG) [13-15, 17, 18, 20, 23-25]. This reactive dicarbonyl compound provokes formation of the covalent bounds in biological macromolecules [13,14,19,23], e.g., between proteins and DNA [20].…”

“…Modification of different biological macromolecules including Hb takes place in carbonyl stress conditions during diabetes hyperglycemia, atherosclerosis and some other diseases [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. When carbonyl compounds react with guanidine, sulfhydril and amino groups of proteins ketamines, hemithioacetales and Schiff bases (alkylimines), respectively, are formed [17][18][19].…”