The Sardinian Bitter Honey: From Ancient Healing Use to Recent Findings

Abstract

Sardinian bitter honey, obtained from the autumnal flowering of the strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.), has an old fame and tradition in popular use, especially as a medicine. Its knowledge dates back over 2000 years, starting from the Greeks and Romans to the present day. There are many literary references from illustrious personalities of the past such as Cicero, Horace, Virgil, and Dioscorides, until recent times, associated with the peculiar anomaly of its taste, which lends itself to literary and poetic metaphors. The curiosity of its bitter taste is also what led to the first studies starting in the late 1800s, aimed to reveal its origin. Other studies on its botanical source and characteristics have been carried out over time, up to the most recent investigations, which have confirmed its potential for use in the medical field, thanks to its antioxidant, antiradical, and cancer-preventing properties. These benefits have been associated with its phenolic component and in particular with the prevailing phenolic acid (homogentisic acid). Later, other strawberry tree honeys from the Mediterranean area have also shown the same properties. However, Sardinian bitter honey maintains its geographical and historical identity, which is recognized by other Mediterranean cultures.

The Rediscovery of Honey for Skin Repair: Recent Advances in Mechanisms for Honey-Mediated Wound Healing and Scaffolded Application Techniques

“…As with the antimicrobial properties, a greater degree of attention is reserved for the Manuka variety rather than other honeys in regard to their antioxidant benefits. Nonetheless, Sardinian strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) honey (STH), also described as "bitter honey", is also appreciated for its exceptional phenolic content and antioxidant properties [110], and it was shown to exert targeted cytotoxic performance at lower doses than Manuka honey (MH) on colon cancerous and metastatic cells, with enhanced ROS production [50]. For both STH and MH, a high significant correlation was observed between polyphenols and flavonoids contents, and there was also a strong relationship between these values and the total antioxidant capacity of honey, suggesting how the virtuous health properties can be ascribed to the notable phytochemical composition.…”

Thorough Investigation of the Phenolic Profile of Reputable Greek Honey Varieties: Varietal Discrimination and Floral Markers Identification Using Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

“…Then, the suspect list was enlarged by adding eight more compounds, namely, isokaempferide, caffeic acid isoprenyl ester, (−)-epigallocatechin gallate, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, arbutin, baicalein, astragalin and kynurenic acid that have been mentioned to exist in honey. Information about formulas, monoisotopic masses and pseudomolecular ions, possible fragment and adduct ions as well as the predicted retention times [ 35 ] for these specific compounds are meticulously presented in Supplementary Materials ( Table S8 , [ 12 , 22 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]). Furthermore, the experimental retention times for the compounds that have been previously identified have also been added to the suspect list and used to increase identification confidence.…”

Characteristic Components and Authenticity Evaluation of Chinese Honeys from Three Different Botanical Sources

“…18 Likewise, terpenes play a significant role in honey's aroma and bitterness. 19,20 The color of honey was primarily influenced by the presence of such pigments as flavonoids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids. Flavonoids were yellow pigments responsible for the light color of honey; carotenoids for the red color; melanoidins and polyphenol− protein complexes for the dark color.…”