The stability of learning disabilities among emergent bilingual children: A latent transition analysis.

Abstract

This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes among elementary-aged English learning (EL) children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, EL children (N ϭ 267) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish and English. These same measures were also administered one year later (Wave 2). Four important findings occurred. First, four latent classes (balanced bilinguals-average achievers, unbalanced bilinguals-average achievers, children at risk for learning disabilities, English dominant) at both testing waves emerged. Second, probability estimates indicated that 20% of the total sample was at risk for learning disabilities at Wave 1, with late-emerging academic difficulties increasing the learning disabilities latent class by 5% at Wave 2. Third, the incidence of late-emerging children at risk for learning disabilities was higher among balanced bilingual average achievers, especially for those children transitioning to or from Grade 3. Finally, the cognitive measures for predicting the odds of children being correctly classified in the final wave of testing included measures of naming speed and working memory. The results support the notion that statistically distinct latent classes emerge under the umbrella of language and academic performance and that children at risk for learning disabilities can be separated among a heterogeneous sample of children who are English language learners. Educational Impact and Implications StatementChildren who are learning in their second language with potential learning disabilities are at high risk for more advanced reading and math difficulties, school drop out, and future employment. Such children are also hard to identify among children who are struggling to become proficient in their second language. The present study identified a discrete and stable group of English learning (EL) children at risk for learning disabilities over two time periods. Consistent with findings on English monolingual children, EL children at risk for learning disabilities showed a combination of reading and math difficulties related to specific inefficiencies in processing speed and working memory. The results also indicated that there is a critical period during the third grade which plays an important role in determining late-emerging risk for learning disabilities as well as variability in performance among average achieving groups after one year.

Stability of learning disabilities, cognitive growth, and L1 in English learners: A latent class and transition analysis.

“…The results indicated an extremely low incidence of children identified as good readers in Wave 1, being identified as at risk for reading difficulties in the later testing waves. There were several limitations in this study, however, which a follow-up study addressed (Swanson et al, 2021). The primary limitation of the earlier work was focusing on EL children at risk for reading difficulties defined on English measures of reading.…”

“…A more recent study (Swanson et al, 2021) considered the classification of elementary children at risk for learning disabilities based on performance on English and Spanish normed referenced measures of vocabulary, reading, and mathematics. In addition, the transitional probabilities between grades at two test waves were analyzed.…”

“…These earlier studies, however, highlighted some of the difficulties in identifying EL children at risk for learning disabilities and whether those disabilities are stable over time. One of the difficulties was the reliance on only two-time points (e.g., Swanson et al, 2021). One cannot assume that stability over time is isolated to two measurement occasions (Hickendorff et al, 2018, p. 12).…”

“…There are at least four limitations in the study (see Swanson et al, 2021, for further limitations at the earlier testing waves). First, our sampling reflected children who were sequential bilinguals (L2 follows L1 development) and therefore may not reflect bilingualism when two languages are learned simultaneously (e.g., Sabourin & V ınerte, 2015).…”

“…To the best of our knowledge, only a few studies have addressed these aforementioned issues related to EL children using latent class and latent transition analysis on an array of language, achievement, and cognitive measures (Catts et al, 2012; Grimm et al, 2019; Swanson et al, 2016, 2021). An earlier study (Swanson et al, 2016) identified a distinct latent class of EL children at risk for reading difficulties at the first testing wave that were also exhibiting difficulties three years later.…”