The use of a closed-loop wind tunnel for measuring the combustion efficiency of flames in a cross flow

Bourguignon, Éric; Johnson, Matthew R.; Kostiuk, Larry W.

doi:10.1016/s0010-2180(99)00068-1

Cited by 37 publications

(29 citation statements)

References 8 publications

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“…Data from experiments in a closed-loop wind tunnel where the entire plume of products from the flare could be captured (Bourguignon et al, 1999;Johnson and Kostiuk, 2000;Johnson and Kostiuk, 2002a) have shown that in the case of low-exit-velocity ($0.5-5 m/sec) pipe flares burning hydrocarbon fuel mixtures with heating values equal to or greater than that of natural gas ($37 MJ/m 3 ), gas-phase efficiencies above 98-99% could be expected at low crosswind speeds. However, efficiencies reduced rapidly at high crosswind speeds, with a functional dependence that varied with U 1…”

Section: Previous Emissions Measurements From Flaresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Black carbon particulate matter emission factors for buoyancy-driven associated gas flares

McEwen

Johnson

2012

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

119

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Flaring is a technique used extensively in the oil and gas industry to burn unwanted flammable gases. Oxidation of the gas can preclude emissions of methane (a potent greenhouse gas); however, flaring creates other pollutant emissions such as particulate matter (PM) in the form of soot or black carbon (BC). Currently available PM emission factors for flares were reviewed and found to be questionably accurate, or based on measurements not directly relevant to open-atmosphere flares. In addition, most previous studies of soot emissions from turbulent diffusion flames considered alkene or alkyne based gaseous fuels, and few considered mixed fuels in detail and/or lower sooting propensity fuels such as methane, which is the predominant constituent of gas flared in the upstream oil and gas industry. Quantitative emission measurements were performed on laboratory-scale flares for a range of burner diameters, exit velocities, and fuel compositions. Drawing from established standards, a sampling protocol was developed that employed both gravimetric analysis of filter samples and real-time measurements of soot volume fraction using a laser-induced incandescence (LII) system. For the full range of conditions tested (burner inner diameter [ID] of 12.7-76.2 mm, exit velocity 0.1-2.2 m/sec, 4-and 6-component methane-based fuel mixtures representative of associated gas in the upstream oil industry), measured soot emission factors were less than 0.84 kg soot/10 3 m 3 fuel. A simple empirical relationship is presented to estimate the PM emission factor as a function of the fuel heating value for a range of conditions, which, although still limited, is an improvement over currently available emission factors.Implications: Despite the very significant volumes of gas flared globally and the requirement to report associated emissions in many jurisdictions of the world, a review of the very few existing particulate matter emission factors has revealed serious shortcomings sufficient to suggest that estimates of soot production from flares based on current emission factors should be interpreted with caution. New BC emissions data are presented for laboratory-scale flares in what are believed to be the first such experiments to consider fuel mixtures relevant to associated gas compositions. The empirical model developed from these data is an important step toward being able to better predict and manage BC emissions from flaring.

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Section: Previous Emissions Measurements From Flaresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Black carbon particulate matter emission factors for buoyancy-driven associated gas flares

McEwen

Johnson

2012

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

119

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“…By plotting the conversion inefficiency (1 -q ) , the fractional increase of fuel not being burned is emphasized. The methodology used to measure the efficiency has been previously described in detail (Bourguignon et al, 1999).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Fuel Stripping Mechanism for Wake-Stabilized Jet Diffusion Flames in Crossflow

Johnson

Wilson

Kostiuk

2001

Combustion Science and Technology

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Experiments were conducted to reveal the origins of measured inefficiencies in low-momentum jet diffusion flames in crossflow. Natural gas flames were established at the exit of a burner tube rnounted vertically in a crossflow of air in a wind tunnel, a configuration that is relevant to gas flaring in the atmosphere. At low momentum flux ratios, the flame exists in a wake-stabilized mode and exhibits combustion inefficiencies primarily in the form of emitted unburned fuel. Measurements with a fast flame ionization detector were used to determine the path of the unburned fuel being emitted from the flame. Analysis of the hydrocarbon concentration time series data show that hydrocarbons are ejected from the underside of the flame in a highly intermittent process. A mechanism is proposed in which the mean flow induced by the standing vortex that exists on the leeward side of the stack transports and stretches the ring vortices from the upper shear layer and ejects them on the underside of the flame.

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“…In the case of hydrocarbon fuels, a higher combustion effi ciency means that carbon in the fuel ends up with more CO 2 , and less CO, soot and other unburnt hydrocarbons (Bourguignon et al, 1999). Koseki and Mulholland (1991) employed the ratio of CO/CO 2 and smoke yield as measures of the combustion effi ciency, and a high level of CO concentration as a sign of poor combustion effi ciency (X1, x1).…”

Section: Influence Of High Altitude On Combustion Efficiency and Radimentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of High Altitude on Combustion Efficiency and Radiation Fraction of Hydrocarbon Fires

Yao

et al. 2017

Heat Trans Res

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The use of a closed-loop wind tunnel for measuring the combustion efficiency of flames in a cross flow

Cited by 37 publications

References 8 publications

Black carbon particulate matter emission factors for buoyancy-driven associated gas flares

Black carbon particulate matter emission factors for buoyancy-driven associated gas flares

A Fuel Stripping Mechanism for Wake-Stabilized Jet Diffusion Flames in Crossflow

Influence of High Altitude on Combustion Efficiency and Radiation Fraction of Hydrocarbon Fires

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