The vicarious effects of hate: inter-ethnic hate crime in the neighborhood and its consequences for exclusion and anticipated rejection

Hate Crime during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study of the Experiences of an Ethnically Diverse University Student Population

“…It has been argued that bystanders can make a positive difference, for example, when they decide to call out hate and express solidarity with targeted victims [42]. By contrast, bystanders' indifference or failure to act has been highlighted as something that is potentially complicit in furthering exclusion and discrimination [27]. The fact that several participants in our research reflected on their bystander experiences serves as an indication of their awareness that bias and discrimination are unacceptable and should not be happening.…”

“…Hate crime has been labelled a 'message crime' which seeks to intimidate and control not just directly targeted victims but anyone who shares their identity. Its 'distal effects' ( [26] p. 47) are capable of generating tension and distrust between different communities, as the 'message' of hate crime potentially travels very widely in a media age [27].…”

Too civil to care? How online hate speech against different social groups affects bystander intervention

“…This is important because stand-alone online hate speech can create the impression among bystanders that these verbal disparagements are appropriate and tolerated in a democratic society (Kümpel and Rieger, 2019; see also Iganski, 2020). Moreover, it is conceivable that such an impression may reinforce potential negative social and psychological consequences for affected communities (Keel et al, 2022; Leets, 2002). In addition, it is certainly necessary to examine the form intervening users may employ to express counterspeech, which should be investigated in follow-up studies because hateful counterspeech, in particular, may lead to even more hostile responses, further damaging civil discourse (Chen and Lu, 2017).…”

“…For instance, there is evidence that hate speech—similar to traumatizing events—can trigger negative emotions and physiological reactions (for example, fear, stress) and foster negative cognitions, such as depressive thoughts and a loss of self-esteem (Geschke et al, 2019; Leets, 2002). In addition, we know that witnessing hate crimes offline can exacerbate one's negative attitudes toward targeted groups (Keel et al, 2022). Thus, bystander intervention in online hate speech is critical because it is thought to help alleviate negative consequences for targeted groups (Preuß et al, 2017).…”

Hate in the Time of COVID-19: Racial Crimes Against East Asians

“…Hate crime is also harmful to social cohesion (Keel et al, 2022) and has externalities on the broader community (Paterson et al, 2019). For example, Gould and Klor (2016) find a reduction in assimilation of Arabs in the United States after a post-9/11 hate crime spike, while Deole (2019) shows that far-right terrorism reduced refugee assimilation in Germany.…”