“…As our survey asked about the time allocation and emotional exhaustion before and after the measures for containing the spread of COVID-19 took place, we could assess the effect of kindergarten and school closures by comparing the changes in outcomes over time between parents and nonparents. Besides contributing to the growing literature on the effects of the pandemic, this article also complements the existing literature on gender inequalities (Hill, 2009;Hundley, 2000;Sullivan et al, 2018), the effect of parenthood (e.g. Andresen and Nix, 2019;Glauber, 2008;Hill, 2009;Killewald, 2013;Rose, 2000, 2002;Molina and Montuenga, 2009;Nwaka et al, 2016;Wilner, 2016) and on the consequences of economic downturns on labour market outcomes (Aguiar et al, 2013;Christiano et al, 2015;Hoynes et al, 2012;Rubery and Rafferty, 2013).…”