Tobacco Smoking and Liver Cancer Risk: Potential Avenues for Carcinogenesis

Abstract

Smoking a cigarette generates over 4000 chemicals that have a deleterious impact on each part of the human body. It produces three main severe effects on the liver organ: oncogenic, immunological, and indirect or direct toxic effects. It results in the production of cytotoxic substances, which raises fibrosis and necro-inflammation. Additionally, it also directs the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor alfa (TNF-α) and interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6) that will be responsible for the chronic liver injury. Furthermore, it gives rise to secondary polycythemia and successively raises the turnover and mass of red cells, which might be a common factor responsible for the development of oxidative stress in the liver due to iron overload. It also produces chemicals that are having oncogenic properties and raises the risk of liver cancer especially in sufferers of chronic hepatitis C. Smoking modulates both humoral and cell-mediated responses by restricting the proliferation of lymphocytes and inducing their apoptosis and ultimately decreasing the surveillance of cancer cells. Moreover, it has been determined that heavy smoking impacts the response of hepatitis C patients to interferon (IFN) therapy through different mechanisms, which can be improved by phlebotomy. Efforts are being made in different nations in decreasing the prevalence of smoking to improve premature death and ill effects of their nation’s individuals.

Diosgenin: An Updated Pharmacological Review and Therapeutic Perspectives

“…Obesity is also associated with liver disease. Over time, liver damage results in scarring (cirrhosis), which can lead to liver failure, a life-threatening condition [ 145 , 146 ]. Under this topic, Xie et al [ 147 ] reported on the impact of diosgenin on transforming growth factor (TGF)- β 1-induced hepatic stellate cells and its mechanism of action for antifibrotic effects.…”

The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents

“…Cancer is a term used to describe malignancies in which abnormal cells multiply in an uncontrolled and continuous manner and can invade the surrounding healthy tissues [ 53 – 55 ]. Abnormal cells come from any tissue in the human body and can occur anywhere in the body [ 56 , 57 ]. The malignancies caused by this uncontrolled multiplication are numerous and difficult to control therapeutically [ 58 , 59 ].…”

Biosynthesis of Secondary Metabolites Based on the Regulation of MicroRNAs

“…Nicotiana tabacum tainted with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), at the beginning phase of the disease (5 dpi), shows a bunch of miRNAs with low aggregation, while a large portion of the miRNAs was upregulated at 15 and 22 dpi including both miRNAs and miRNA targets [36,37].…”