Toll-like receptor 2–positive and Toll-like receptor 4–positive cells in adenoids of children exposed to passive smoking

MBL2 genetic polymorphisms in Italian children with adenotonsillar hypertrophy

“…This interaction is partly caused by recognition receptors (Toll-like receptors, TLRs) that trigger innate immunity, both providing immediate protective responses against pathogens and instructing the adaptive immune response [35][36][37][38][39]. TLRs are present in the human adenoid and tonsils.…”

Toll-like receptor expression in the human nasopharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) and palantine tonsils: A preliminary report

“…Several studies have demonstrated the ability of nasopharyngeal and palatine tonsils to produce proinflammatory molecules, which may be a consequence of TLR signaling in these tissues [5,12,13]. Additionally, studies have demonstrated the expression of innate immune components in the upper airway, including TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, human beta defensin 2 (HBD2), and HBD3, which may be involved in the production of proinflammatory molecules in these tissues [14][15][16][17]. Furthermore, both tissues are enclosed in epithelial cells, which have been suggested to be a major source of proinflammatory cytokine production in adenoid and tonsil tissue.…”

“…Therefore, the nasopharyngeal and palantine tonsils are clearly capable of producing proinflammatory and antimicrobial molecules, which shape the immune response [5,12,13]. However, the mechanism(s) by which these tissues are able to respond to viral and bacterial stimulation is not clear [14][15][16][17]. Several investigators, including our group, have demonstrated that TLRs play a significant role in the induction of the innate immune response in several tissue and cell types, including epithelial cells [11,[19][20][21][22].…”

Active and Passive Smoking and Risk of Narcolepsy in People with HLA DQB1*0602: A Population-Based Case-Control Study

“…Neurologic disorders with a hypothesized autoimmune etiology have been known to result from streptococcal infections [30] . In the case of narcolepsy, exposure to passive smoke may increase the likelihood of streptococcal infections due to immunosuppression [31][32][33] , which in turn could trigger an autoimmune response leading to the selective destruction of hypocretins in the lateral hypothalamus of people with HLA DQB1 * 0602.…”