Toward Biomimetic Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: 3D Printing Techniques in Regenerative Medicine

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology allows fabricating complex and precise structures by stacking materials layer by layer. The fabrication method has a strong potential in the regenerative medicine field to produce customizable and defect-fillable scaffolds for tissue regeneration. Plus, biocompatible materials, bioactive molecules, and cells can be printed together or separately to enhance scaffolds, which can save patients who suffer from shortage of transplantable organs. There are various 3D printing techniques that depend on the types of materials, or inks, used. Here, different types of organs (bone, cartilage, heart valve, liver, and skin) that are aided by 3D printed scaffolds and printing methods that are applied in the biomedical fields are reviewed.

Case Report: Histological and Histomorphometrical Results of a 3-D Printed Biphasic Calcium Phosphate Ceramic 7 Years After Insertion in a Human Maxillary Alveolar Ridge

“…It is possible, starting from CBCT files, to create a 3D prototype of the patient's maxilla/mandible, obtained by transferring the files to specific reconstruction software (Mangano et al, 2015b;Luongo et al, 2016). Potent CAD software can design a custom-made bone graft straightforwardly on this 3D model (Figliuzzi et al, 2013;Mangano et al, 2015b;Luongo et al, 2016;Chung et al, 2020). The file of the 3D designed scaffold is sent to a computer-numeric-control (CNC) machine, which mills the custom-made bone graft of the chosen material (Figliuzzi et al, 2013;Mangano et al, 2015b;Luongo et al, 2016).…”

“…With the improvement of computeraided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) technologies it has been feasible to analyze the bone deficiency of a patient on a 3D-CT scan and to create bone grafts that fit perfectly into the receiving site (Mangano et al, 2015b;Luongo et al, 2016;Raymond et al, 2018). Several techniques have been used to produce three dimensional scaffolds [e.g., inkjet printing, stereo lithography, fused deposition modeling, and selective laser sintering (Bose et al, 2013;Hwang et al, 2017;Liu et al, 2019;Chung et al, 2020)]. These techniques allow the creation of solid constructs with an excellent pore interconnectivity, high biocompatibility, capabilities of maintaining space and, for bone regeneration procedures, they seem to be able to provide greater osteoconductivity (Carrel et al, 2016;Hwang et al, 2017;Raymond et al, 2018;Kim et al, 2020).…”

Does vehicle-based delivery of mesenchymal stromal cells give superior results in knee osteoarthritis? Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

“…70 To enhance the quality of scaffolds in CTE, biomimetic 3D printed nanocomposite scaffold and water-based polyurethane 3D printed scaffold evolved to maintain the microarchitecture, shape, and structure of the tissue to be regenerated. 47,81,82 Further, research on improvising the scaffold properties to enhance the cellular viability and proliferation, and quantification of collagen in the regenerated articular cartilage are warranted. 46,83 Though the usage of scaffolds results in tissue regeneration but the scaffold ergonomics is still debatable and their clinical utility is still in its infancy and needs standardization in its application.…”

New Insights into the Application of 3D-Printing Technology in Hernia Repair

“…Additive manufacturing paves the way for the development of so-called bioactive biomaterials, which are cutting-edge prostheses with enhanced properties conferred by the presence of bioactive agents. The layer-by-layer fabrication system means that substances, compounds, drugs, and even living cells can be interleaved between layers of the printed material [90]. The printed layers and compounds used can be tailored to achieve a coordinated balance between drug release and device degradation [91,92], thereby enhancing tissue repair.…”