Trafficking and Syrian Refugee Smuggling: Evidence from the Balkan Route

Abstract

As of March 2016, 4.8 million Syrian refugees were scattered in two dozen countries by the civil war. Refugee smuggling has been a major catalyst of human trafficking in the Middle East and Europe migrant crises. Data on the extent to which smuggling devolved into trafficking in this refugee wave is, however, scarce. This article investigates how Syrian refugees interact with smugglers, shedding light on how human smuggling and human trafficking interrelated on the Balkan Route. I rely on original evidence from in-depth interviews (n = 123) and surveys (n = 100) with Syrian refugees in Jordan, Turkey, Greece, Serbia, and Germany; as well as ethnographic observations in thirty-five refugee camps or other sites in these countries. I argue that most smugglers functioned as guides, informants, and allies in understudied ways-thus refugee perceptions diverge dramatically from government policy assumptions. I conclude with a recommendation for a targeted advice policy that would acknowledge the reality of migrant-smuggler relations, and more effectively curb trafficking instead of endangering refugees.

Refugees and Shifted Risk: An International Study of Syrian Forced Migration and Smuggling

“…We suggest, in other words, that the agency of mid‐level actors pressures migrant agency in counter‐intuitive ways (see also Mandic, ). In doing so, we do not exonerate law‐breakers or reckless risk‐takers from responsibility, we merely observe some of the conditions under which such decision‐making occurs.…”

Identifying trafficked migrants and refugees along the Balkan route. Exploring the boundaries of exploitation, vulnerability and risk

“…One social worker described how migrants/refugees were often under some pressure from family and community members as well who had as a personal goal to resettle in the EU. One study found that a sizable proportion of Syrian refugees along the Balkan route were following family or friends who had previously travelled the route (serving as Btrailblazers^) and had a set destination [29]. The unpredictability and rapid changes of border and migration management may also enhance the urgency to move on, for fear of being trapped within closed or closing borders.…”

“…The focus of the debate about smuggling versus trafficking in Mediterranean boat crossings has been on how those who transport people across borders are to be understoodas smugglers or as traffickers. One recent study of trafficking and smuggling along the Balkan route found that, while the overwhelming majority of migrants/refugees (∼75%) did not report trafficking experiences, 7.9% of the sample reported engaging in labor during migration; 26.8% of the sample reported experiencing deception at the hands of smugglers; and 12.2% of the sample reported involuntary family separations caused by smugglers [29]. However, while smugglers were involved in some human trafficking cases identified in Serbia, this far from covered all human trafficking cases.…”

“…Cases of labour trafficking were reported amongst migrants/ refugees while in transit, largely when individuals needed to make money to move on. A survey of Syrian refugees along the Balkan route found that refugees crossing by boat from Turkey to Greece paid on average 33% more following the EU -Turkey agreement in March 2016 [29], which involved, among other things, stepping up security efforts by the Turkish coast guard and police [20]. The same study found that accounts of labour exploitation of refugees in Turkey were more common after the agreement, ascribing this to the higher costs and risks associated with boat crossings to Greece [29].…”

Perspectives on Human Trafficking and Modern Forms of Slavery

“…The level of scholarly interest in these topics continues to grow, and in this issue the authors explore some of the most pressing manifestations of human trafficking around the world. Articles by Ventrella (2017) and by Mandić (2017) explore the highly topical issue of the confluence of smuggling and human trafficking in the context of distress migration from northern Africa and the Middle East into the European Union. Migration will always remain central to the contemporary human trafficking crisis, and it is vital that we learn how traffickers prey on their victims in the context of mass migration events in order to devise more effective preventions and protections.…”