Translating Thoughts Into Action: Optimizing Motor Performance and Learning Through Brief Motivational and Attentional Influences

Abstract

Skilled motor performance is essential in sports, the performing arts, various occupations, and many daily activities. Scientists and practitioners alike are therefore interested in understanding the conditions that influence the performance and learning of movement skills, and how they can be utilized to optimize training. In OPTIMAL theory, three motivational and attentional factors are key: enhanced expectancies for future performance, the performer’s autonomy, and an external focus of attention. We review recent evidence suggesting that each factor contributes independently to strengthen the coupling of goals to actions. This work has implications ranging from fostering more effective skill development in novice learners, to increasing the efficiency of athletes’ and musicians’ performance, and to facilitating the success of patients in regaining functional capabilities.

Every story has two sides: evaluating information processing and ecological dynamics perspectives of focus of attention in skill acquisition

“…With focus relevance intricacies in mind, recent research has emphasized the complexities of selecting appropriate external foci for learning and performance. Mechanistic explanations underpinning the attentional focus phenomenon have tended to emphasize the role of an external focus to augment congruence between planning and action, and ultimately enhance automaticity of motor programming (see Wulf et al's ( 23 )], constrained action hypothesis, and Wulf & Lewthwaite's ( 24 , 25 ) notion of goal-action coupling, respectively). However, it stands to reason that these mechanisms rely on there being a more tangible (i.e., relevant) movement effect such as motion of a club, racket, or ball.…”

“…However, a more recent research direction has begun to embrace more holistic and non-linear methodologies, arguably more consistent with skill acquisition in practice. In this manner, Wulf and Lewthwaite's ( 24 , 25 ) OPTIMAL theory (optimising performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning) (see Figure 1 ), proposes that learning is a consequence of interactions between both attentional and motivational factors. The authors speculate that the ideal sensorimotor and motivational conditions can lead to enhanced goal-action coupling via use of more efficient functional connections across brain networks.…”

“…Wulf and Lewthwaite ( 24 , 25 ) have since tried to consider these attentional mechanisms in conjunction with psychological factors underpinning motor learning, on the basis that the role of motor, social, cognitive, and affective mechanisms should be considered as complex interactions in line with human function, and not in isolation. Specifically, OPTIMAL theory proposes that adopting an external focus of attention in conjunction with autonomy and enhanced expectancies for success, stimulates advantageous dopamine responses, augmenting “goal-action coupling”.…”

“…Firstly, the action-effect principle of common coding ( 57 ) and the goal-action coupling of OPTIMAL theory ( 24 , 25 ), account for attentional focus effects by suggesting that movements should be planned in relation to their intended effects/goal for optimal parameter selection; this seminal work predominantly assumes that an external focus most closely aligns with intended effects/goals in all tasks, since actions take place in the external environment ( 1 , 24 , 25 , 55 ). However, the presently proposed Ecological Dynamics Account of Attentional Focus (see Figure 2 ) offers a more nuanced explanation for common coding and goal-action coupling effects, based on direct perception.…”

“… An ecological account of focus of attention, adapted from Davies & Davies ( 105 ), Newell's ( 83 ) constraints model, and Wulf and Lewthwaite's OPTIMAL model ( 24 , 25 ). …”