“…The bilaterally reduced RAIs observed among PLWH are similar to those previously observed across substance use and neuropsychiatric disorders ( Alexopoulos et al, 2012 ; Bartova et al, 2015 ; Bednarski et al, 2011 ; Bonavita et al, 2017 ; Chang et al, 2014 ; Gauffin et al, 2013 ; Høgestøl et al, 2019 ; Lee et al, 2017 ; Liddle et al, 2011 ; Liu et al, 2018 ; Oyegbile et al, 2019 ; Peterson et al, 2009 ; Schilbach et al, 2016 ; Sutherland et al, 2012 ; Verfaillie et al, 2018 ; K. Wang et al, 2019 ; Y. Wang et al, 2013 ; Whitfield-Gabrieli & Ford, 2012 ; Wu et al, 2011 ; Yin et al, 2016 ; R. Zhang & Volkow, 2019 ; Zhou et al, 2016 ). Nicotine and other drug-dependent individuals have displayed reduced RAIs during acute withdrawal ( Lerman et al, 2014 ; Reese et al, 2019 ). However, Moradi et al’s (2020) recent work questioned the RAI as a reliable biomarker for substance use disorders following null effects among stimulant and/or opiate users that had been abstinent for, in some cases, multiple months (mean of 108 days, ranging from 4 to 365 days).…”